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ANNEX II Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Annex II Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA This document provides technical guidelines for common terms, definitions, and units used in various chapters of the Global Energy Assessment (GEA). Additionally, it covers the proposed spatial resolution (definition of regional aggregates), base year values, units and definition of energy, and sectorial definitions. Definition and aggregation of GEA Regions Three different levels of regional aggregations are used in GEA, each of which serves for different purposes and levels of analysis. 1. 5 regions: This aggregation is the common, consistent denominator across the different models proposed to be used in GEA. Thus, it represents the minimum level of spatial disaggregation for all analytical input/output data within GEA that involved modeling work. For instance, data for the GEA pathways are available systematically for the 5 GEA regions only. This is the highest (i.e., minimum) level of spatial disaggregation across all GEA chapters. 2. 11 Regions: This is the spatial resolution available for all IIASA models used in GEA, which provided the backbone especially for the GEA scenario work for developing the pathways. Input data used in GEA modeling work (e.g., resource potentials, present energy use patterns, technology characteristics that are regionally different, etc.) have been provided at least at the level of these 11 world regions. The 11 regional Figure 1 | Minimum GEA regional detail (5 regions). 1816 Table 1 | 5 Regions. Regional acronyms Regional definition OECD90 UNFCCC Annex I countries REF Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union ASIA Asia excl. OECD90 countries MAF Middle East and Africa LAC Latin America and the Caribbean OECD90 = Includes the OECD90 countries, therefore encompassing the countries included below (11 region) in the regions WEU, NAM and PAO. REF = Countries undergoing economic reform, i.e. countries listed under the regions EEU and FSU below (11 regions). ASIA = The countries included in the regions SAS, PAS and CPA are aggregated into this region. MAF = This region includes the Middle East and African countries that make up the regions AFR and MEA above. LAC = This region includes the Latin American countries that make up the LAC region above. aggregations represent just an approximate denominator across all models used within GEA. Data for 11 regions are available for specific scenarios and for a limited set of models only. The results of the GEA pathways are documented in detail at the interactive web-based GEA scenario database hosted by IIASA: www.iiasa.ac.at/web-apps/ene/ geadb. Annex II Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Figure 2 | GEA Scenario Model Regions (11 regions). Figure 3 | Detailed GEA Regions (18 regions). 3. 18 regions: This is the minimum spatial disaggregation needed to reconcile the regional definition differences across models used within GEA (e.g., including IMAGE models). This regional definition was used for all salient analytical work within GEA, e.g., for describing base year patterns of energy end-use and supply, energy access, resource potentials (fossil and renewable), technology deployment, policy implementation, etc. When available data did not permit the representation of all 18 regions, the 11 regions defined above was used, or alternatively at least the 5 GEA Regions. Base year (2005) proportional scaling techniques are suggested in cases where only 5-regional input data are available but finer regional detail is required. Base Year: 2005 A common GEA base year is 2005. This is the year for which most critical energy statistics were available in time for GEA’s analytical work. More recent data where provided wherever available. 1817 Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Table 2 | 11 Regions. Annex II Table 3 | 18 Regions. Regional acronyms Regional definition Regional acronyms Regional definition NAM North America USA United States of America WEU Western Europe CAN Canada PAO Pacific OECD WEU Western Europe, incl. Turkey EEU Central and Eastern Europe EEU Central and Eastern Europe FSU Former Soviet Union FSU Former Soviet Union CPA Centrally Planned Asia and China NAF Northern Africa SAS South Asia EAF Eastern Africa PAS Other Pacific Asia WCA Western and Central Africa MEA Middle East and North Africa SAF Southern Africa LAC Latin America and the Caribbean MEE Middle East AFR Sub-Saharan Africa CHN China OEA Other East Asia IND India NAM = North America (Canada, Guam, Puerto Rico, United States of America, British Virgin Islands) WEU = Western Europe (Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Holy See, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom) PAO = Pacific OECD (Australia, Japan, New Zealand) EEU = Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, The former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia) OSA Other South Asia JPN Japan PAS Other Pacific Asia OCN Australia, New Zealand, and other Oceania LAC Latin America and the Caribbean USA = Unites States (Guam, Puerto Rico, United States of America, British Virgin Islands) CAN = Canada FSU = Newly independent states of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan) CPA = Centrally planned Asia and China (Cambodia, China (incl. Hong Kong and Macao), Korea (DPR), Laos (PDR), Mongolia, Viet Nam) WEU = Western Europe (Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Holy See, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom) SAS = South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) EEU = Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, The former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia) PAS = Other Pacific Asia (American Samoa, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Indonesia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua, New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu) FSU = Newly independent states of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan) MEA = Middle East and North Africa (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt (Arab Republic), Iraq, Iran (Islamic Republic), Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya/SPLAJ, Morocco, Occupied Palestine Territory, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Syria (Arab Republic), Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Yemen) NAF = North Africa (Algeria, Egypt (Arab Republic), Libya/SPLAJ, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia) EAF = Eastern Africa (Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Somalia, Uganda) LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Miartinique, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Santa Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela) WCA = Western and Central Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Congo (DR), Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo) AFR = Sub-Saharan Africa (Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Congo (DR), Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaBissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Reunion, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Saint Helena, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe) MEE = Middle East (Bahrain, Iraq, Iran (Islamic Republic), Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Occupied Palastine Territory, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria (Arab Republic), United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Yemen) 1818 SAF = Southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Reunion, Rwanda, Saint Helena, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe) CHN = China (incl. Hong Kong and Macao) OEA = Other East Asia (Cambodia, Korea (DPR), Laos (PDR), Mongolia, Viet Nam) Annex II Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Economic data are expressed in 2005 US$. GDP at constant (2005) prices in US$ was calculated using the following equations: price in national currencyi (t ) = GDP aat current pricei (t ) GDP deflatorri (t ) GDP deflatorri (2005) GDP in constant s (2005) GDP at constant (2005) price in national currency (t) price in US$i (t ) = XRATEi (2005) Table 4 | Sample XRATE for major currencies. Local Currency XRATE [Local Currency / US$] in 2005 Euro 0.803 British Pound 0.549 Japanese Yen 108.9 Chinese Yuan 8.195 Canadian Dollar 1.211 Australian Dollar 1.309 Where, i = country indicator, t = year indicator, XRATEi(2005) = annual average market exchange rate in 2005 [Local currency / US$]. GDP at local currency (t = 2005) GDP-PPP in nternation $ (t = 2005) For example, 272 [billion 2007 Euro] GDP in Austria can be converted in 326 [billion 2005 US$] as follows: The relevant statistics are available from the World Development Indicators (World Bank, 2007). 262 [2005 Euro] = 272 [2007 Euro] ⎛ 112.93 [GDP deflator (2007)]⎞ ⎜⎝ ⎟ 108.51 [GDP deflator (2005)]⎠ 262 [2005 Euro] 326 [2005 US$] = 0 803 [XRATE (2005)]) (0.803 All relevant data series for each country is from the World Economic Outlook (WEO) database by IMF at: www.imf.org/external/data.htm. Depending on the specific context, economic indicators were presented in purchasing power parity (PPP) or market exchange rates (MER). In either case, the choice of PPP or MER should be clearly stated in the text and figures. The equations above are given for market exchange rates (XRATE). For using PPPs, above XRATE needs to be replaced by the following term: Table 3 | (cont.) IND = India OSA = Other South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) Discount Rate The discount rate represents the annual rate at which the effects of future events are reduced so as to be comparable to the effect of present events. Assumptions in regard to the discount rate adopted have important implications when considering medium- to long-term scenarios. However, there is no rate universally accepted since it is laden with value judgment. For practical reasons, GEA adopted a uniform rate of 5% throughout. Other rates are used in specific cases (e.g. from the literature) whenever possible with a clear reference to the rate used is made in such instances. Energy Flows (Joules) Both final and primary energy use levels are reported systematically in GEA using SI units (i.e., Joules or multiples thereof, and to allow for additional units, e.g., kWh if so desired, but always keeping the Joules common denominator). Often alternative units from original sources in the literature are shown in addition to the SI units. For the sectorial enduse chapters, only final energy is reported to avoid the risk of double counting. JPN = Japan OCN = Oceania (Australia, New Zealand) PAS = Other Pacific Asia (American Samoa, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, French Polynesia, Gilbert-Kiribati, Indonesia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua, New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Samoa) LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Santa Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela) Table 5 | Units based on SI. Physical quantity Unit Symbol Length meter m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K Energy Joule J Power Watt W Temperature Degree Celsius ºC 1819 Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA Table 6 | Selected SI prefix. Symbol 10n exa- E 1018 peta P 1015 tera T 1012 giga G 109 mega M 106 kilo k 103 hector h 102 deca Prefix da 10 - - 100 deci d 10–1 centi c 10–2 milli m 10–3 micro μ 10–6 nano n 10–9 pico p 10–12 femto f 10–15 Accounting of Primary Energy A consistent methodology was used for converting non-combustible and non-fossil energy (e.g., renewable and nuclear energy for electricity generation) to primary energy equivalent across the assessment. A widely accepted method for the accounting of primary energy from these sources does not exist. Studies in the past have either used the substitution equivalent method, assuming specific efficiencies for renewable sources, or they have applied the direct equivalent method, which accounts the energy output (e.g., electricity) of above energy sources as their primary energy. The SRES (IPCC, 2000) have used the direct equivalent method, while e.g., Nakicenovic et al. (1998) and the IPCC (2007) have applied uniform conversion efficiencies across different sources (38.6% and 33%, respectively). Other assessments, such as the World Energy Assessment (UNDP, 2004) or the World Energy Outlook (IEA, 2007a), combine both methods, and assume different conversion factors for different conversion technologies (in the WEA, for instance, nuclear: 3, hydro, wind and solar: 1, geothermal: 10). It was decided to keep the accounting methodology transparent and as simple as possible in GEA given that a widely accepted and consistent 1820 Annex II method across different studies does not exist. As a guide for the selection of the conversion efficiency, a global average efficiency of electricity and heat generation for the year 2005 was used. This corresponds to an average efficiency of 35% for electricity generation, and 85% for heat generation (IEA, 2007b). For example, 1[EJ] of electricity generated by wind or nuclear at the secondary energy level is accounted as 2.86 [EJ] (i.e., 1/0.35) at the primary energy level. Likewise, 1[EJ] of heat generated (and used as heat) by solar or geothermal is accounted as 1.17 [EJ] at the primary energy level (i.e., 1/0.85). See Chapter 1 for further discussion of primary energy accounting methods. Accounting of Heating Values To maintain clarity and consistency throughout the report, the heating value of a substance, i.e., the amount of heat released during combustion of a specified amount, is expressed in J/kg. Heating values are clearly defined in the text as either HHV (Higher Heating Value) or LHV (Lower Heating Value). It is assumed that heating values are given as LHV unless explicitly noted in the text as HHV. The difference is that HHV includes the energy of condensation of the water vapor contained in the combustion products. Sectorial Definitions The reporting and analysis within GEA’s sectorial chapters adheres strictly to the principle of mutual exclusiveness. Therefore, efficiency improvement (or carbon reduction) potentials for end-use sectors (e.g., industry) are always strictly separated from corresponding “upstream” energy systems/sectors (e.g., electricity generation). For example, emissions reductions (e.g., from the electricity generation sector) at the supply side need to be discussed/accounted in the “upstream” GEA chapter, while the end-use demand chapters should report emission/energy reduction potentials due to fuel substitution and energy conservation in that end-use sector only. Thus, sectorial assessments were not “inflated” by accounting for (often unrelated) “upstream” energy systems changes that should be reported separately. The GEA energy modeling framework enabled a rigorous and consistent accounting across sectors and the impacts of policy measures at the sector level. Annex II Technical Guidelines: Common terms, definitions and units used in GEA References IPCC, 2007: Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. International Panel on IEA, 2007a: World Energy Outlook 2007: China and India Insights. International Nakicenovic, N., A. Grubler and A. McDonald (eds.), 1998: Global Energy Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Energy Agency (IEA), Paris. IEA, 2007b: Energy Balances, 2007 Edition. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris. Perspectives. International Institute for Applied System Analysis (IIASA), World Energy Council. IPCC, 2000: Emissions Scenarios. Special Report of Working Group III of the UNDP, 2004: World Energy Assessment: 2004 Update. United Nations Development International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, Programme (UNDP), United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Cambridge. (UNDESA), World Energy Council. 1821