Download The Rise of the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire

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Christian History Study Series #6 (key)
NOTES
The Rise of the Papacy and the Holy
Roman Empire
By Craig B. Esvelt
Introduction: The three major divisions of Christianity today are Roman
Catholic, Eastern Orthodoxy (Greek and Russian) and Protestantism. The
first to arrive on the scene historically was Roman Catholicism, but the
Roman Catholicism that we know today with a single Pope didn’t show up
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until the 6 century. Greek Orthodoxy appeared in the middle of the 11
th
century, and Protestantism made its appearance in the 15 century. This
lesson will provide an overview of developments that led to the rise of
Roman Catholicism.
I.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY AND ROMAN
CATHOLICISM
A. Factors Leading to the Dominance of the Roman Bishop
1. Rome had been the traditional center of an empire for half
a millennium. The Council of Constantinople (381 A.D.)
recognized the primacy of Rome, with Constantinople
having second honor.
2. When Constantine moved the capital of the empire to
Constantinople in 330 A.D., the Roman bishop was the
individual looked to for leadership by the Western people.
When Rome was sacked in 410 A.D., it was the bishop
who saved the city from burning.
3. Clovis (481-511 A.D.), king of the Franks in northern Gaul,
was the first barbarian leader of any importance converted
to the Faith, with 3,000 of his army following him in baptism. The Franks became ardent supporters of the bishop
of Rome in Italy, and their territory established a base of
missionary work in Europe.
4. With Christianity, the Roman bishop had a reputation for
orthodoxy. In an edict (445 A.D.) the emperor Valentinian
III recognized the supremacy of the Roman bishop in spiritual affairs. His enactments were ecclesiastical law for all.
5. Certain early Christian writers credited Peter and Paul
with the founding of the church at Rome, including
Irenaeus who wrote in the 2nd century. The bishops in
Rome who followed were seen as successors to the apostles. This “apostolic succession” whereby Peter’s successsors bear supreme authority over the whole Church was
made official dogma at the First Vatican Council in 1870.
6. Despite the above, there is no evidence until the time of
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Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.
Constantine (early 4th century) that the bishop of Rome
held any kind of authority outside of Rome itself.
B. Some Notable Leaders and Developments
1. Leo the Great (400-461 A.D.)
a. A former nobleman of Italy, he was made bishop of
Rome in 440 A.D. and began insisting the primacy of
the Roman bishop based upon a claim of apostolic
succession that began with the apostle Peter (see
Matt. 16:13-19).* he made use of the title “papas” from
which Pope is derived.
b. Although the Council of Chalcedon (451) gave equal
authority to the bishop of Constantinople for having
authority in the East just as the bishop had in the
West, Leo refused to recognize the Council’s decision,
thus appearing to assert himself above the authority of
a formal ecumenical gathering.
c. In 452 A.D., it was Leo who negotiated a withdrawal
from a conquest of the city by forces of Attila the Hun.
Then in 455, at the gates of Rome, Leo confronted the
vandal king Gaiseric, whose forces threatened to burn
the city. Leo pled for the city, and Gaiseric proclaimed
there would be 14 days of looting. The city was thoroughly plundered, but 14 days later the Vandals sailed
off and the city was saved. The authority of Rome now
rested in the hands of its bishop!
2. Gregory the Great (540-604 A.D.)
a. Gregory was born to a wealthy Roman family during
difficult times (pillaging bands, disease, and famine),
and at age 33 the emperor Justinian made him mayor
of Rome, virtually in charge of its entire economy.
Later, he gave up his wealth and position and became
a monk because he believed it was the best way to
glorify God.
b. He was chosen to be leader of the Roman church
after the death of his predecessor from the plague in
590 A.D., and was one of its ablest administrators and
noblest leaders. A humble individual, he fled the city
after his election and hid in the forest until he was
found and brought back to the city. He called himself
“servant of the servants of God.”
c. Though disclaiming the title “Pope” he used its power
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*The Roman Catholic Church has insisted
that these verses establish Peter as he
upon which Christ would build his church.
Protestants, on the other hand, point out:
1) Jesus made it clear that preeminence
among his followers was not to be patterned after the world as to lordship (Mt.
20:25-27)
2) Peter was notoriously unstable, rebuked
by Jesus for his erroneous counsel (Mt.
16:23), denying his lord in a moment of crisis and even rightly criticized by the apostle
Paul (Gal. 2:11-14)
3) While Roman Catholics believe Jesus
was telling Peter that he (Jesus) was going
to build his Church on Peter, Protestants
insist Jesus was saying he would build his
Church on what Peter confessed, i.e., that
Jesus was “the Christ (Messiah), the Son of
the living God.”
Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.
and privileges, ruling over Spain, Gaul, Britain, Africa
as well as Italy. Zealous for missionary work, he sent
Augustine (not of Hippo) to bring Britain the gospel
message, eventually replacing Celtic Christianity.*
d. He was an outstanding theologian, great preacher,
and founder of the Gregorian chant, yet he was superstitious and credulous. Though prayer to the saints
and the use of relics (bones, locks of hair, pieces of
clothing, etc., of famous departed believers) did not
originate with Gregory, he emphasized their use and
belief in their power and efficacy.
e. It is Gregory who first really symbolized what we know
as the papacy, and his work and influence became the
turning point from the early Church period (classical
Christianity) to the medieval period where the culture
was largely dominated by the Church.**
3. Hildebrand (1020-1085 A.D.)
a. He was renamed Pope Gregory VII. Under his leadership and that of Pope Innocent (1160-1216) papal
power reached its zenith as the notion of papal supremacy over temporal rulers was claimed by the
Church. Now the pope was not merely equal with the
state but supreme over it.
b. Other sweeping claims were made in a document
composed around that time, the Dictatus Papae (“Dictates of Popes”), e.g.,
1) that the Roman Church owed its foundation to God
alone
2) that the pope alone was to be called universal and
that he had full power over all bishops
3) that only his feet could be kissed by all princes
4) that the Roman Church had never erred (nor could
it do so)
5) that the pope could absolve subjects of allegiance
to temporal rulers and that he could excommunicate a leader or a country.
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4. The 12 and 13th centuries was also a period of phenomenal church construction, with Gothic spires reaching to
the heavens through a renaissance of architecture.
5. The power of the papacy and necessity of sacraments in
determining the fate of the souls of men (and nations) was
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Gregory promoted belief in Purgatory and
the necessity of acts of penance for sins
(e.g., good works) to secure atonement,
and in his time communion was seen as a
real sacrifice of Christ’s body and blood
each time it was performed.
**To the Roman Catholic Church, this ushered in what was to be the Golden Age of
human history followed by the disintegrating forces of Protestantism and its chaotic
religious scene, whereas Protestant historyians see the Medieval period as the Dark
Ages where the pure church of the early
ages became corrupted by power.
Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.
promoted largely by a Dominican monk, Thomas Aquinas
(1224-1274), who otherwise was one of the Church’s
greatest theologians and apologists.
a. He taught that, although Christ won grace through his
sacrifice, such grace was to be imparted by the Church
(e.g., through the sacraments). The Eucharist (Lord’s
Supper) was a true sacrifice in that it continued each
time the elements were served, the wine and bread
changing into the actual body and blood of Christ
(transubstantiation).
b. He confirmed the practices of indulgences, whereby
the Church had access to a spiritual “reservoir of merit”
established by the work of Christ and the saints that
could be accessed for dispensing grace. Also, prayers
to the saints in heaven could bring about relief from the
pains of Purgatory.*
C. Development of the Liturgy and New Practices in Worship
1. As the Church expanded its territory and power in the 4th
and 5th centuries, the influx of barbarians into its fold (e.g.,
by mass “conversions”) brought about a syncretistic blend
of pagan practices and superstitions along with the
Church’s teachings.
a. Since these more primitive cultures had been used to
worshiping images, the Church felt it advantageous to
“materialize” aspects of worship, so the veneration of
angels, saints, statues, relics, and pictures emerged.
b. By 590 A.D. prayers for the saints had become prayers
to God through them. Legends of miracles associated
with such prayers developed, and traffic in their relics
had become common.*
2. The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus, had arisen
by 590 A.D. as well.
a. Church fathers Clement and Tertullian had ascribed
eternal virginity to Mary; Augustine believed that she
had never sinned (i.e., the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception, not declared R.C. dogma until 1854)**
b. An invocation by Ephraim Syrus, a Syrian deacon of
the 4th century, is an early instance of a prayer to Mary.
c. Cyril, a bishop of Alexandria (412-444), popularized
the term Theotokos (lit: “God-bearing”) in reference to
Mary, which is usually translated “Mother of God.”*
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*As church historian Bruce Shelley observes, Thus we come to the peak of
ecclesiastical aspiration—and arrogance.
Earth alone is not enough! The pope and
his priests not only mediated the grace of
God to sinners on earth—by the miracle of
the Blessed Sacrifice and by their prayers
for the dead —they reach beyond the grave
to minister to suffering souls. (Church
History in Plain Language, p. 221)
*Again, historian Bruce Shelley notes
regarding “patron” saints, The saints, with
their particular assignments, may well have
meant more to the people than Christ himself. St. Anthony took care of pigs, St. Gaul
looked after hens, St. Apollonia, whose jaw
had been broken in the persecution, cured
the toothache, St. Genevieve cured fever,
and St. Blaise was responsible for sore
throats. For almost every human need
these slightly converted Germans could find
a saint. (Ibid, p. 176)
**Protestants counter that Mary bore brothers and sisters of Jesus (Mt. 1:25, 13:5556) and that she needed a savior (and thus
sinned – Luke 1:47)
*Regarding the 2 natures of Christ, it would
be more appropriate to see Mary as the
mother of the man Jesus rather than “God!”
Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.
II. THE EXPANSION OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
A. The Forging of Political Allies to the North
1. The Merovingian Dynasty was composed of former
barbarians from Europe who had moved into Gaul (not
France) and conquered the Roman forces, adopting their
culture. They became known as the Franks.
a. Their strongest leader was Clovis (Lesson 4.III.B.3)
b. The Franks became the pope’s ally, defending Rome
from invaders and expanding the territory of the
Church’s influence. Imperial rule in the West shifted
from Rome to the Franks.
2. The Carolingian Dynasty
a. In the years following Clovis, Gaul became divided
and under the control of “mayors of palace.” Pepin of
Heristal (687-714 A.D.) reunited the kingdom. The
Merovingians were to become mere figureheads,
without power.
b. Charles Martel (“the Hammerer”), an illegitimate son of
Pepin, defeated the Muslims at Tours in 732 A.D. and
saved Spain (and Europe?) from becoming Islamic.
He supported the missionary work of Boniface* among
the Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine, knowing that
Christianity would reduce their hostility.
c. Martel’s son, Pepin the Short, defended Rome against
the Lombards and was donated Italian land in exchange. He was crowned king of the Franks.
d. The greatest ruler of the Franks was Charlemagne,
son of Pepin the Short (742-814 A.D.), a huge, powerful man who loved both sports and culture. He was
devoted to Christianity but had concubines.
1) An able soldier and leader in warfare, his territory
was extended to include most of Germany,
France, and Italy as far south as Rome.
2) He fostered a “cultural rebirth” in education, music,
and art, importing an Anglo-Saxon scholar, Acuin,
to increase learning throughout the realm, a movement known as the “Carolingian renaissance.”
3) He supported Pope Leo III against an insurrection
and on Christmas Day in A.D. 800 was crowned
emperor of the “Holy Roman Empire.” The new
empire was to have two arms: the spiritual,
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*see Lesson 4.III.B.5
Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.
responsible under the pope for men’s souls, and
the temporal, responsible under the emperor for
men’s bodies.
4) He required every boy over the age of 12 to swear
fealty to his sovereign (king), make promises to
help the poor, and obey other precepts of Christ.
B. Spreading the Faith
1. Winfred (also known as Boniface), born in England, was
sent by Pope Gregory II in 729 A.D. to Germany. Arriving
in a sacred forest of Thor, the pagan god of Thunder, he
defied the pagan gods by attacking one of their objects of
worship, a massive oak tree. Tradition has it that, as his
ax struck the trunk, a huge gust of wind toppled the tree
and the amazed pagans were converted. He became the
first bishop of Mainz and was later martyred while seeking
to spread the gospel in Frisia (the Netherlands, 754 A.D.).
2. Vaclav of Bohemia (reigned 923-929 A.D.), better known
and commemorated by a song sung at Christmastime as
King Wenceslas, came to the throne at age 18 as a tributary of the German king. A very devout young man, he
brought missionaries into Bohemia, built churches, and
was generous to the poor. He wore a rough shirt under his
royal robes and remained a virgin, and was assassinated
by his own brother on the way to church.
3. Olaf Tryggvason of Scandinavia (963-1000 A.D.), a greatgrandson of a Nordic king, was sold into slavery as a child
and later rescued by an uncle. He adopted the life of a
Viking, raiding along the English coast where he was
brought to Christ and baptized by a Christian hermit. He
was made king of Norway in 995 A.D. and undertook the
conversion of his realm by persuasion (and, if necessary,
by force!), destroying pagan temples and opposition.*
4. Vladimir of Russia (958-1015 A.D.) was born the illegitimate son of a servant girl. Escaping the murderous intentions of a brother, he came to the throne and, despite
having had the influence of a godly grandmother, initiated
a pagan revival. Proficient as a leader, he nevertheless
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was known for his drinking, feasting, and fornicating (he
reputedly had four wives and more than a thousand concubines). However, in his late twenties he began investigating the major religions, and ultimately settled on
eastern Christianity (i.e., Eastern Orthodoxy).
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*Tryggvason won to the Faith explorer Leif
Ericson, son of the pagan leader Eric the
Red, and perhaps the first European to
reach America.
A History of Christianity by Kenneth Scott
Latourette (2 volumes, by Harper Publ.)
Church History In Plain Language by
Bruce Shelley (Word, Inc.)*
History of the Church by Philip Schaff
(Hendrickson Publ.)
The Christians: Their First Two
Thousand Years (12 volumes by SEARCH
of the Christian History Project)**
Christian History Magazine (published by
Christianity Today but now out of print)
Christian History Institutes Glimpses
pamphlets (Worcester, PA)
Dr. Craig B. Esvelt, Valley View Christian Church, Kent, WA., ARR.