Download Scientific Papers Relating To Soil Biology and the Growth

Scientific Papers Relating To Soil Biology and the Growth of Perennial Grasses in Fine
Turf.
Sports Turf Root Zone Construction.
The sand construction of root zones typically supports very limited biological diversity. (Koske et al 1997a)
The Biology of Sports Turf Root Zones.
The biology of a typical sport turf root zone mimics that of a very young soil in the earliest stages of natural
biological succession being mainly populated by the more resilient forms of bacteria, particularly gram positive
bacteria. (karp et al 2004)
The Impact of Turf Management on Soil Biology.
The heavy usage and intensive year round management of sports turf has a tendency to maintain the same
gram positive bacteria dominant microbial for a number of reasons, which typically include:
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The prevention of the natural accumulation of organic matter and humus in the soil.
The inherently low level of available oxygen in the soil due to the very high sand content.
The regular high level of compaction due to usage and the use of machinery to manage the turf.
The use of high volume irrigation systems which can result in temporary anaerobic conditions in the root zone.
The use of high salt index inorganic feeds which result in raised osmotic potential in the rootzone and water
stress on all the organisms in it.
The accumulation of high levels of iron in the rootzone form regular usage
High levels of sulphates from inorganic fertilisers which can rapidly form toxic sulphides during anaerobic
conditions.
Regular physical disturbance of the soil similar to soil tillage.
All these factors help to maintain a sports root zone in a primary stage of ecological succession, and prevent the
development of a more diverse, yet more delicate soil biology. (Donnison et al 2000); (Frey et al 1999); (Van der
Wal et al 2006)
Grass Species Associated With Bacterial Dominant Soils.
In the same way as there are primary colonising microbes in soil there are also primary colonising plant species
which are adapted to take advantage of the biologically sparse conditions found in bacterial dominant soils.
In sport turf, one of the most significant of these grasses is Poa annua, the annual meadow grass. This grass
species is adapted to produce high quantities of seed during a short life span, for rapid colonisation of freshly
disturbed soils and to utilise the nutrients produced by the by products of metabolism of the soil bacteria. Part
of its success as a coloniser is its ability to self pollinate combined with its rapid seed dispersal through wind,
animal and human activity, including via footwear (Clifford 1956). As with most plants and soil biology, there is a
complex interaction between the two and in this case the release of sugars produced by plant photosynthesis in
the form of root exudates comprising simple sugars encourages the further growth of soil bacteria which in turn
provides a source of food and protection for the grass plant.
Grass Species Associated With Fungal Dominant Soils.
As secondary successional plants that have a considerably longer lifespan than Poa annua, perennial grasses
have evolved to thrive in a soil with a secondary successional – fungal dominant – biology. The fungal
colonisation of soils is a relatively slow one with fungi arriving via the dispersal of wind -blown spores, with
varying efficiency and the migration of fungal hyphae from adjacent mature soils.
The fine physical structure of soil fungi means that they are more prone to physical disturbance and chemical
and water stress than the hardier soil bacteria and as a result, do not readily colonise and are easily lost from
intensively - managed fine turf areas.
This effect is exacerbated by the year round use of fine turf and the application of fungicides.
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Fungi are found in higher percentages in natural older grasslands than in younger soils. These fungi are able to
degrade complex carbohydrates such as the cellulose and lignin comprising the thatchy material produced most
prolifically by perennial grasses. (De Vries et al 2007).
Fungi are less dominant in managed than unmanaged soils. Fungi are more dominant in soils that are in a later
stage of ecological succession. Van Der Wal et al (2006)
Bacteria are less affected by soil disturbance than fungi. (Frey et al 1999)
Reduced fungal biomass in soils can be due to the toxicity of fertilisers as well as disturbance. (Donnison et al
2000)
Fungi - including mycorrhizae – can be up to 80% of the microbial biomass of mature soils, even if they are
numerically less abundant. (Lynch 1990)
The Association Between Plants and Mycorrhizal Fungi.
The most important plant microbial interaction is that between specialised mycorrhizal fungi and a very high
percentage of perennial plants, including the grasses.
This association developed early on in the evolution of plants and has helped perennial plants to make a
successful long – term colonisation of the harshest land habitats.
The mycorrhizal plant – fungus symbiosis allows the plant to scavenge for scarcely available nutrients and water
and is also implicated in the protection of the plant form pathogens.
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You tend to find non – mycorrhizal plants in soils with low levels of mycorrhizae and vice versa. (Allen 1991)
Mycorrhizae do not grow in disturbed soils. (Fairchild et al 1990).
The absence of mycorrhizae has been shown to slow the rate of plant growth in early succession in damaged or
degraded landscapes. (Jeffries et al 2003)
Plants grown in sterile soils perform poorly without the addition of spores or hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi.
(Bonneville et al 2009)
Mycorrhizae in sports turf management.
As with all perennial grasses, the most desirable fine grass genera form strong mycorrhizal associations. The
intensive physical and chemical management of fine turf is antagonistic to the long term survival of
mycorrhizae in root zones and is cited as one of the reasons why fine turf exhibits ‘reverse succession’, going
from a fine perennial sward to an annual one over time.
The susceptibility of mycorrhizal fungi to physical and chemical damage is one reason why the regular
introduction of mycorrhizal propagules directly to the rootzone to maintain mycorrhizal association, combined
with less aggressive management techniques can help in the maintenance and re-establishment of a fine grass
sward.
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Mycorrhizae improves the drought tolerance of grasses. (Allen et al 1983)
Poa annua tends to be low in sports turf with a high percentage of mycorrhizae. (Gange et al 1999)
Poa annua in golf greens is generally associated with low mycorrhizal colonisation. (Stoppard et al 1995)
The drought tolerance of creeping bentgrass in improved by mycorrhizal colonisation. (Gemma et al 1997)
The presence or addition of mycorrhizae can reduce the negative effects of regular grass cutting (extrapolated
from a paper on herbivores). (Barto et al 2010)
Mycorrhizae increases fine grass colonisation on golf greens. (Koske et al 2005) (Gemma et al 1997a)
Mycorrhizae and organic amendments with biostimulants improve both the growth and tolerance to salinity in
creeping bentgrass during establishment and hence are beneficial for all course constructions and where
recycled, or low quality water is used. (Koske et al 2005)
Higher Soil food web & Compost Teas
The bacterial and fungal component of healthy natural soils is only a relatively small percentage of the total
potential soil biomass and the species diversity of commercially available, fermented innocula that can be
added to fine turf is a fraction of that found in natural soils
The use of compost teas to extract a greater diversity of life from specially prepared composts – including soil
protozoans and nematodes – is being more widely used in all areas of plant growing to harness the benefits of a
biologically diverse soil.
In summary this includes:
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Natural aeration.
Nutrient retention and recycling.
Improved water retention and usage.
Improved plant health and vigour.
Reduced potential for pathogen dominance
The production methods of the compost can manipulate the biology for the required application and biology
can be further manipulated and increased during the brewing process.
As a relatively new and very complex and variable process, there are currently few peer - reviewed papers to
back up the results that are being recorded in the fine turf, horticultural and agricultural sectors. This should be
rectified as the technology becomes better established.
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Complex food webs have less plant - associated diseases and disturbed food webs have more. (Sanchez –
Moreno et al 2007)
Compost Teas have shown reduced incidence of diseases in plants. (Zhang et al 1998)
Some of the complex mechanisms involved in the mechanisms of disease control using compost teas have been
identified – although due to the complex nature of the subject and the inherent variability of teas peer
reviewed research is in its infancy. (Dianez et al 2006)
The use of teas made from more mature composts with greater fungal diversity have been shown to have a
greater effect in natural disease suppression (Egwanatum et al 2009)
Using compost teas in conjunction with other fertilisers has shown improved root and shoot growth compared
to the use of inorganic fertilisers that showed shoot growth but less root development. (Smith et al 2006)
References.
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Allen M.F. (1991) The Ecology of Mycorrhizae. Cambridge University press 184pp.
Allen M.F.; Boosalis M.G. (1983) Effects of two species of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on drought
tolerance of winter wheat. New Phytopathol. 93 67-76
Barto E.K.; Rillig M.C. (2010) Does herbivory really suppress mycorrhiza? Journal of Ecology 98(4) 745-753
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Bonneville S.; Smits M.M.; Brown A.; Harrington J.; Leake J.R.; Brydson R.; Benning L.G.Plant-driven fungal
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weathering: Early stages of mineral alteration at the nanometer scale Geology July 2009, 37, 615-618.
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Clifford H. (1956) Seed dispersal on footwear. Proceedings of The Botanical Society of the British Isles 1956
De Vries F.; Bloem J.; van Eekeren N.; Brussaard L.; Hoffland E. (2007) Fungal Biomass in pastures increases with age
and reduced N input. Soil Biol. Biochem 39 1620-1630
Dianez F.; Santos S.M.; Boix A.; Cara M.; Trillas I.; Aviles M.; Tello J. (2006) Grape marc compost tea suppression to
plant pathogenic fungi: role of siderophores. Geomicrobiology Journal 23(5) 323 -331
Donnison, L.M., Griffith, G.S., Hedger, J., Hobbs, P.J. and Bardgett, R.D. (2000) Management influences on soil
microbial communities and their function in botanically diverse haymeadows of northern England and Wales. Soil
Biology and Biochemistry, 32, 253-263
Egwunatum A.; Lane S. (2009) Effects of compost age on the suppression of Armillaria Mellea with green waste
compost teas. Compost Science & Utilisation
Fairchild M.H.; Miller G.L . (1990) Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas and the soil disturbance induced reduction of
nutrient absorption in maize. New Phytol. 114 641-650
Frey S.D.; Elliot E.T.; Paustian K. (1999) Bacterial and Fungal abundance and biomass in conventional and no – tillage
agroecosystems along two climatic gradients. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 31, 573-585
Gange A.C.; Lindsay D.E.; Ellis L.S. (1999) Can arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi be used to control the undesirable
grass Poa annua on golf courses? Journal of Applied Ecology 36(6)
Jeffries P.; Giannazz S.; Perotto S.; Turnauk K.; Barea J-M. (2003) The contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in
sustainable maintenance of plant health and soil fertility. Biology and fertility of soils vol 37 (1) 1-16
Karp M.A.; Nelson E.B. (2004) Bacterial communities associated with creeping bentgrass in soil and sand root zones.
USGA Turf and Environ. Res. Online 3 (24) 1-19
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Koske R.E.; Gemma J.N.; Roberts E.M.; Jackson N.; De Antonis K. (1997a). Enhanced establishment of
Bentgrasses by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Journal of Turfgrass Science 73, 9-14.
Koske R.E.; Gemma J.N.; Roberts E.M.; Jackson N.; De Antonis K. (1997). Mycorrhizal fungi improve drought
resistance in creeping bentgrass. Journal of Turfgrass Science 73.
Koske R.E.; Gemma J.N.; Jackson N. Mycorrhizal fungi benefit putting greens, 1995, USGA Greens Record,
Department of Botany and Department of Plant Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island.
Koske R.E.; Gemma J.N., 2005 Mycorrhizae and an organic amendment with biostimulants improve growth and
salinity tolerance of creeping bentgrass during establishment. Journal of Turfgrass and Sports Science Vol. 81
Lynch J.M. (1990) The Rhizospehre. John Wiley. New York.
Sanchez – Moreno S.; Ferris H. (2007) Suppressive service of the soil food web: Effects of environmental
management. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 119, 75 – 87.
Smith R.F.; Cameron I.; Letourneau J.; Livingstone T.; Livingstone K.; Sanderson K. (2006) Assessing the effects of
mulch, compost tea and chemical fertiliser on soil microorganisms, early growth, biomass, partitioning and
taxane levels in field – grown rooted cuttings of Canadian Yew (Taxus Canadensis). Proceedings 33rd PGRSA
annual meeting
Stoppard L.M.R.; Gange A.; Lyne M.J. Relation between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Poa annua in golf
putting greens. 1995. Writtle College, Chelmsford, Essex, CM1 3RR, UK. School of Biological Sciences, Royal
Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX UK.
Van Der Wal A.; van Veen J.A.; Smant W.; Boschker, H.T.S.; Bloem J.; Kardol P.; van der Putten W.H.; de Boer, W.
(2006) Fungal biomass development in a chronosequence of land abandonment . Soil Biol Biochem 38, 51-60
Zhang W.; Han D.Y.; Dick W.A.; David K.R.; Hoitink H.A.J. (1998) Compost and compost water extract – induced
systemic acquired resistance in cucumber and Arabidopcis. Phytopathology 88, 450-455