Download Option M Rome: The fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC

Option M Rome: The fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC
Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written
sources for the fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC, students learn about
significant developments, forces and relevant historiographical issues that
shaped the historical period.
Students learn about:
1 Political developments in the late Republic
– legacy of Sulla
– Pompey: significance of military and political career
– significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC
– role and significance of Cicero
– First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar,
Pompey and Crassus
– activities and breakdown of the First Triumvirate
– political crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political
purposes; urban violence
– role of optimates, populares
– Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for
outbreak of the Civil War 49–45 BC
– significance of Caesar’s dictatorship
2 Wars and expansion
– Pompey’s extraordinary commands and the Eastern Settlement
– Caesar’s military activities in Gaul, Germany and Britain
– significance of the Mithridatic and Parthian wars
3 Fall of the Republic
– impact of Caesar’s assassination
– formation, activities and breakdown of the Second Triumvirate
– rivalry and Civil War between Mark Antony and Octavian: role of
Cleopatra VII; Battle of Actium
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1. Political Developments in the Late Republic
Legacy of Sulla
● In 88, first civil war in Rome was fought between Marius and Sulla;
ended in 82 with defeat of Marius.
– Sulla now introduced proscriptions.
– Sulla had the Tribal Assembly vote to give him powers of a dictator
(82) for purpose of restoring the Republic. He achieved this through
military force and violence.
– Use of client professional armies wa s one way of guaranteeing
political dominance.
– Sulla tried to revive Republican constitution and increase
authority of Senate.
– Rome continued to face foreign threats, which meant generals with
armies had to be found. Many of these generals gained prominenc e
in future (e.g. Pompey/Caesar).
Pompey: significance of military and political career
● Pompey was a general who often switched allegiances , supporting
whoever would give him political power. Generals in Rome were able to
ignore the cursus honorum, as, in extraordinary circumstances, they
could be appointed special powers without ever holding office. They
army gave Pompey the political power he sought.
● Military/political career of Pompey was exceptional and extraordinary.
He was given proconsular and pro praetorian commands without
holding the qualifying office; he was consul in 70, seven years before
the legal age.
● His extraordinary commands (e.g. lex Gabinia) gave him sweeping
powers/authority which was unequalled at the time. Height of
Pompey’s political power came in sole consulship of 52:
– Sole consul with immense wealth/power.
– Proconsular imperium as controller of grain supply.
– Loyal soldiers/clients throughout the empire.
– Proconsular command of Libya and two Spains.
Significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC
● Although both Pompey/Crassus had been lieutenants of Sulla,
once consuls they sought to destroy what was left of his
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●
●
●
●
constitution.
Prior to election, Pompey stated his support for returning legislative
power to tribunes. Was popular with people; Sulla had deprived
tribunes of their legislative power and debarred them from office c
Pompey saw opportunity to restore these powers, and effect it would
have for his career. Pompey/Crassus wished to use tribunes for their
own gain.
Pompey/Crassus also won power by promising reform of senatorial
juries , which had proved to be extremely corrupt; they took sole power
of juries away from Senate, instead sharing the power over them
between Senate, equites and tribuni aerarii.
Important pieces of legislation passed during joint consulship (known
as Licino/Pompeian laws):
– Restoration of tribunate to legislative powers and right of veto.
– Revival of censorship. Censors immediately revised senatorial
list, removed 64 senators and enrolled new senators.
– Legislation concerning composition of law courts c at time was
exclusively made up of senators. Was proposed that in future
courts would have equal numbers of senators, equites and
tribuni aerarii (group just below equites in wealth). Tribuni aer
arii/equites had similar interests c would work together to keep
senators in check.
Significance ‹ dismantled remainder of Sulla’s constitution. Many of
these measures won Pompey/Crassus great popularity.
Significance of Cicero
● Cicero was a great orator and literary figure, and also trained as lawyer.
Wrote many legal/political speeche s, but is his letter which are most
useful historically; they tell events during 1 st century BC not only from
year to year, but day to day.
● Significance of Cicero’s career:
– Was keen supporter of Pompey until his death; spoke in favour of
lex Manilia and looked after Pompey’s interests while he was in
the east. Supported Pompey up to and during Civil War, but
reconciled with Caesar after.
– Attacked Caesar’s ‘illegal acts’ during his consulship in 59.
– Refused to join FT, although asked multiple times by Caesa r.
– Was exiled for putting Catalinarian conspirators to death without
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trial, but was recalled by Pompey.
– Made various speeches against Antony after death of Caesar
(Philippics), which Antony sought revenge for by proscribing
him (murder).
● Cicero was staunch supporter of Republic; in the end, his efforts to
restore it cost him his life when he was murdered in 43 on orders of
Antony.
First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar,
Pompey and Crassus
● Scullard: “lts formation was a turning point in the history of the Free
State, and it was … the ultimate origin of the Civil War of 49 BC.”
● Cicero regarded FT as infamous/disgraceful alliance “an uniformly
odious to all sorts of classes and ages of men.”
● First Triumvirate (FT) was unofficial, informal and non-legal
alliance between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus . All three men had
aims the Senate would not allow them to achieve.
● Caesar saw opportunity (FT) presented; first had to
reconcile Pompey/Crassus.
● FT was seen by Crassus/Pompey as solution to s hort-term problems.
All three triumvirs had problems which FT could solve:
– Pompey: needed land for veterans after eastern settlement;
needed eastern settlement to be ratified ‘en bloc’.
– Crassus: needed rebate he had promised to equestrian tax farmers.
– Caesar: needed consulship of 59; province for 58 to give ‘scope’ for
his military ability.
●
Caesar gained consulship of 59 with support of Pompey/Crassus .
Was able to solve majority of short-term problems from three
triumvirs:
– Pompey: agrarian bill for his vete rans ‹ however, was achieved
through threat of force from Pompey, as neither Senate/tribunes
would pass the bill.
– Crassus: one-third rebate for equestrian tax farmers.
– Caesar: provinces of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and Transalpine Gaul for
five years.
– Caesar also passed lex Campania ‹ harsher land bill which
divided last public land in Italy into 20,000 allotments for urban
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poor. Strongly opposed by Senate/conservatives.
● After consulship of 59 Caesar went to his provinces; proceeded to
wage Gallic campaigns from 58-50. During this time, FT came under
pressure; Caesar appointed Clodius as tribune, who used gang warfare
to discredit Pompey; Pompey used Milo to retaliate against Clodius.
Also, tensions rose between Pompey/Crassus; short-term goals had
been achieved, regarded each other with contempt.
● Caesar called Conference of Luca in 56 c renewal of triumvirate. Was
in best interests of each triumvir to maintain coalition. Led to 2 nd
joint consulship of Pompey/Crassus in 55. Gains for triumvirs:
– Pompey: provinces in Spain.
– Crassus: province of Syria; military campaign in 55/53.
– Caesar: extension of command in Gaul for further five years .
● Pompey/Crassus gained consulship through bribery/violence.
Breakdown of the FT
● Death of Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s da ughter) meant that Pompey
was no longer bound to Caesar; Caesar attempted to maintain
coalition (e.g. through offering great-niece Octavia to Pompey);
Pompey rebuffed his efforts and began shifting his position to
optimates, although still maintained coalition with Caesar for time
being.
● In middle of 53, news reached Rome that Romans had been defeated
by Parthians and Crassus had been killed. Crassus’ death made split of
coalition more likely.
● Pompey became sole consul in 52 and passed variety of laws whic
h worried Caesar:
– Law against public violence.
– Law stipulating a five-year interval between urban magistracies
and provincial commands.
– Law demanding all candidates must appear in person at election
c made Caesar suspicious of Pompey’s motives. Caesar plan ned to
stand in absentia to avoid prosecution; changed by Pompey.
● In 52 Pompey remained halfway between Caesar/optimates, although
he was moving more towards optimates. Caesar’s enemies wished to
bring him to Rome and prosecute him; Pompey would have to pi ck a
side, and when war came in 49 he sided with Senate.
Some historians indicate that Caesar was actually offered a compromise
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but he senate to ratify (legalise) his laws before his departure from Rome
in 58.
- Pompey and Crassus, was a man of EGO: self-promotion and
glorification were not only craved but were essential to their
power.
Believed that Caesar wanted complete power therefore he wanted the
civil war.
Political Crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political
purposes; urban violence
Role of the Senate
● Senate was the body which advised magistrates. Different roles:
– Dealt with foreign relations.
– Prepared legislation.
– Administered finances.
– Supervised state religion.
● By 1st century BC, Senate was virtual govt. of Rome:
– Had influence/control over assemblies and magistrates.
– Could not make laws but issued decrees (senatus consulta).
●
Senate gave special commands to generals; however, could not stop a
general using the army to further his ambitions . Once military situation
was settled, Senate was powerless to stop generals demanding more
power and using their armies as a threat.
● This inability to control generals/armies allowed circumstances to
develop which helped bring about fall of the Republic.
● Problems of Senate (in general):
– Did not provide strong leadership.
– Was corrupt/inefficient
– Only interested in its own power/prestige
– Unable to cope with strong generals
– Breakdown of law/order on streets
– Foreign policy was weak.
Use of the army for political purposes
● During 1st century BC Rome, was interdependence between army and
political power. Generals such as Pompey, Caesar, Antony and
Octavian showed that political power came from control of successful
armies.
● Successful generals used threat of their armies to achieve greater
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political power.
● Veterans became important (e.g. in terms of their loyalty) in
passing legislation through Assembly.
● Senate was threatened/intimidated by armies, and did not refuse
demands of generals.
● Generals were able to amass great wealth from their foreign wars, and
garnered themselves great prestige and popularity, and a large client
base from their victories.
Urban violence
● General characteristic of this time period was urban violence in form of
riots/civil unrest. Problem was so bad that elections could not b e held
in 53-52. Law/order was breaking down, and Senate could not stop it.
● Example:
– Tribune Clodius arranged gangs to terrorise enemies of triumvirs of FT.
– Pompey arranged his own rival gang, led by tribune Milo. Milo’s
gang murdered Clodius.
– Widespread rioting in Rome in this period.
– Problem was so bad that Senate passed Senatus consultum
ultimum, giving Pompey sole consulship of 52 to deal with
disorder.
Role of optimates, populares
Optimates
● Were conservative group in Senate.
● It was optimate Cato who blocked Pompey’s attempts to ratify his
eastern settlement and Crassus’ rebate for the tax farmers. Also
opposed Caesar’s election to consulship.
● Optimates drove these men into forming FT by blocking their
attempts to pass laws. Later, the optimates convin ced Pompey to
side with them, which effectively forced Caesar into civil war.
Populares
● Populares was politician/political faction which relied on support of
the people. Populares were opposed to optimates, and used
assemblies to achieve their political p owers.
● Caesar was a populares, and Pompey sided with populares in order
to gain his extraordinary commands.
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Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for the
outbreak of Civil War, 49-45 BC
● Senate hoped that powerful generals could be c ontrolled by political
competition, believing each would be willing to act for Senate if it
advanced them politically. This political competition between
Pompey/Caesar as well as breakdown of FT and actions of Senate led
to civil war.
● Caesar was concerned about his command in Gaul; he wanted
consulship for 48 and then be given five -year command.
● In 52, law (by Pompey in his sole consulship) said that five years had
to elapse between magistracy and provincial commands, and that all
candidates must appear in person at elections. This affected Caesar ‹
he wanted to be immediately re-elected without returning to Rome;
otherwise, would be prosecuted for illegal actions during consulship of
59.
● Caesar attempted to compromise with Senate in December 50, offering
to give up Transalpine Gaul and lay down his command if Pompey did.
The consuls rejected his offer and declared him a public enemy.
● In January 49, Caesar crossed Rubicon and started Civil War.
Caesar
● Caesar was legally responsible, as crossing the Rubicon was treasonable
act.
● In 59 ‹ had committed illegal acts. Demand for an extension of his
proconsulship was an effort to evade impeachment for these acts; if he
stood trial, would be condemned.
● Caesar’s agent Clodius brought about unrest through urban violence
and attacked Pompey.
● Caesar felt Civil War was not of his making; forced to choose
between self-defence and political extinction.
● Caesar believed he was defending his dignitas and rights of tribunes.
Also felt he was liberating Rome from a faction.
Pompey
● Pompey had held many irregular or unconstitutional positions in the
past but now blocked Caesar’s similar demands; was acting
hypocritically.
● Compromising with Caesar would have meant accepting him as an
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equal; Pompey may not have been prepared to do this.
● Allowed himself to be turned against Caesar by Senate, who
persuaded him not to reconcile with Caesar.
● Pompey felt he was essential to Roman Republic, and that his
dignitas was enhanced by being called to save the state.
Senate
Optimates were determined to destroy Caesar for his actions in 59.
Caesar was forced into the position he was in during 50 -49 by
optimate senators; however, senators
misjudged his
strength/support.
● Senate persuaded Pompey to reject Caesar’s attempts at reconciliation.
● Senate feared Caesar and tried to limit his power by stopping
him becoming consul and not extending his command in Gaul.
●
Significance of Caesar’s dictatorship
● Caesar held dictatorship four times:
1. 49 ‹ for 11 days, when he ended debt problem in Rome.
2. 48 ‹ for one year. Pacified the eas t, relieved the rent crisis in
Rome and pardoned his captured enemies.
3. 46 ‹ for 10 years. During this time he enacted number of reforms.
4. 44 ‹ made dictator for life (perpetual dictatorship).
● Most significant result of Caesar’s dictatorship ‹ many Romans f
eared he would turn his perpetual dictatorship into a monarchy,
which many Romans did not want. As a result, a conspiracy was
formed; Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44.
2. Wars and Expansion
Pompey’s Extraordinary Commands and the Eastern Settl ement
Pompey's rise to power/breakdown of Sullan constitution
● 83 c Pompey raised an army to support Sulla against Marius. Was
granted propraetorian imperium for the command of army; was not
only far below required age for extraordinary command but had als o
never served in public office. First violation of Sulla’s constitution of
many.
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Pompey held this command for further 2 years while he fought Marian
supporters in Sicily/Africa. Once he returned, demanded triumph; Sulla
refused as was in violation of his own restatement of lex Villia Annalis
(law which set minimum age for cursus honorum). However Sulla
eventually gave in; undermined his own constitution by granting
Pompey’s triumph. Sulla died in 78.
Revolt of Lepidus
● Lepidus raised army in revolt in 77, w hen he was proconsul of Gaul.
Senate passed consultum ultimum, which declared Lepidus public
enemy. Pompey sided with Senate who reluctantly granted him
propraetorian imperium to help Catulus quash Lepidus’ revolt.
● Once Lepidus was defeated, many of his su pporters fled to Sardinia to
join Sertorius, a rebel Roman leader. Pompey again delayed
disbanding his army in the hope the Senate would send him to Spain
to help Metellus defeat Sertorius. The Senate c no choice, granted
Sulla proconsular imperium c bigger bestowment of power than
before.
Campaign against Sertorius, Spain, 77 -72
● Sertorius was populares who had fought against Sulla with Marius; was
sent to Spain during civil war. Once Marius was defeated, Sulla sent
various generals to depose him; however, Sertorius achieved victory
time and again. Pompey arrived in 76 but lost two major battles to
Sertorius.
● Pompey was running short of supplies and warned Senate war
could spread to Italy if did not receive additional help; Pompey
received two additional legions, allowed him to maintain pressure
on Sertorius.
● Many of Romans who joined Sertorius became jealous of his power
c Perpena, an associate. Sertorius was murdered in 72 at a banquet;
conspiracy was organised by Perpena. Perpena took power but was
defeated and executed in 71 by Pompey.
● Pompey c credit for defeat of rebel forces; however, without
murder of Sertorius, is doubtful this would have happened. Pompey
also gained reputation for being diplomatic/humane c treatment of
Spanish once they had been defeated.
Slave uprising led by Spartacus, 73 -71
● 73 c slave uprising led by gladiators/slaves, led by Thracian
gladiator Spartacus. Pompey was in Spain at time c did not
●
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encounter Spartacus until end of uprising.
●
Crassus, praetor of 73, sent to deal with Spar tacus c given
either propraetorian or proconsular command.
● Pompey arrived back in 71 c officially associated with extraordinary
commands assigned to Crassus. Crassus had done bulk of
campaigning, yet Pompey received credit c Pompey awarded 2nd
triumph while Crassus only received ovation.
● Crassus/Pompey agreed to work together for consulship of 70; both
men waited with their armies outside Rome to gain consulship. Decree
passed in Senate which exempt Pompey from age restrictions, as was
still 7 years too young.
Piracy and lex Gabinia
Piracy was big problem in Eastern Mediterranean c pirates
captured cities, sacked/plundered religious sanctuaries and
caused general mayhem on Italian coastline.
● At first, Roman govt. turned blind eye to pirates’ activities; weal thy
landowners were making large profit from slave trade used by pirates.
However, pirates eventually became significant problem c govt. forced
to do something.
● Aulus Gabinius (hence lex Gabinia) proposed extraordinary command
to get rid of pirates; Gabinius was friend of Pompey. Gabinius proposed
man of consular rank be given 3 -year imperium to campaign anywhere
in Mediterranean, and in all Roman provinces up to 50 miles inland.
Commander would be able to utilise as much money as needed from
treasury, and have ability to recruit soldiers/sailors.
● In Senate, only Caesar spoke in favour of bill; however it was Assembly
who decided. Voted for lex Gabinia, but also granted greater powers
than proposed; Pompey was given command of 500 ships, 120,000
troops and 5000 cavalry.
● Within 40 days, Pompey had cleared whole Western half of
Mediterranean of pirates. Many others fled or surrendered, and
campaign against pirates was over in less than 3 months.
Mithridates and lex Manilia (proposed by tribune Manilius)
● Mithridates used distraction of Sertorius, Spartacus and pirates to
rebuild his power/resources. Formed alliance with son -in-law
Tigranes and attacked Roman province of Bithynia.
● Lucullus waged lengthy campaign against Mithridates; by 68 had
●
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driven the pair into Armenia and defeated their combined forces.
However, was criticised for prolonging Mithridatic war for what was
seen as his own benefit.
● Pompey was obvious choice for replacement of Lucullus; success
against pirates had benefited Roman commerce and was likely to be
little resistance from Senate.
● Caesar/Cicero spoke in favour of appointing Pompey c bill was passed.
Pompey's Eastern Settlement
● Pompey’s subsequent military successes against Mithridates/Tigranes
largely based on hard campaigning of Lucu llus before him; resources
of Mithridates/Tigranes was severely depleted by Lucullus and so
posed no real threat. 63 c Mithridates died.
● Results of Eastern Settlement:
1. Added western Pontus to Bithynia; annexed territory of the
Seleucids and added parts of Judaea to form province of
Syria; enlarged existing province of Cilicia.
2. United area under Roman control by fostering growth of
cities of Hellenistic type.
3. In order to protect Roman provinces from future threats from
powerful kingdom of Parthia, Pompey or ganised large number
of client-states; were independent but maintained friendly
relations with Rome.
Tigranes c left in possession of Armenia and also
received Western Mesopotamia.
▪ Pharnaces (son of Mithridates) c permitted to
keep European possessions.
▪ Other states included Cappadocia, Armenia Minor, etc.
▪
The Benefits of Pompey’s Eastern Settlement
For Rome
For the provincials
For Pompey
● Pompey
● Added
to
and ● East
received
increased his
consolidated Rome’s
peace/security
overseas
empire and sphere of
for the future.
client
base,
influence.
● Pompey
which
he
● Added
480 million
became
a
would need
sesterces in war spoils
patron for the
● Pompey’s Eastern settlement once again showed Pompey’s
for support in
to the war treasury.
provincials in
outstanding ability as organiser, administrator and diplomat .
case of civil
their dealings
● Raised Rome’s annual
Pompey's Return to Rome
war.
with Rome.
revenue from tribute
by 70%.
12
●
Optimates were deeply concerned about return of Pompey; some
were in fear he would march on Rome. However, Pompey disbanded
his army peacefully; they would only be called back to celebrate his 2
nd triumph.
●
Pompey’s triumph was on huge scale c went for two days. Triumph
was celebration usually granted to great general after long career and
many successes; Pompey was in early-40s and was granted two.
Caesar’s Military Activities in Gaul, Germany and Britain
Caesar's Gallic Campaigns 58 -50 BC
Year Events
58
- Caesar provoked a war with the
BC
Helvetti (Swiss) by manipulating
them; he prevented them from
migrating in their usual route and
instead forced them to pass
through the countryside of the
Aeudi tribe (allies of Rome).
Caesar used this as an excuse to
attack the Helvetti; they were
defeated and returned to their
57
-original
Caesar’shomeland.
troops are now involved
- Caesar
his attention
in
some then
otherturned
skirmishes;
Caesar
to
the German
tribe
led inbynorth
King
attacked
rebellious
allies
Ariovistus;
this tribe
begunthe
to
of Gaul, attacked
andhad
defeated
make alliances
with other
Nervii
(Normandy),
defeatedGallic
the
tribes (Seubi
Belgian
Gauls. and Sequari). Caesar
especially
claimed
- Caesar again
usedthe
the Germans
excuse
were
that he was acting to defend
threatening
provinces
Rome’s alliesRoman
(the Remi
tribe). when
56
-they
Caesartook
comes to hostages
Luca for and
a
- Caesar
thenAeudi
left to visit his other
conference
with other Triumvirs.
demanded
province. more land.
When
returned,the
he put
down
Caesar hedefeated
Germans,
rebellions
in Aquitania
and Ariovistus
was killed. and the
lands of the Veneti and Venelli.
- By end of 56, Caesar was patron
of much of Gaul and praetor of
the Gallic people.
13
Gaul was being set up for
annexation by Rome, or to be a
client state. In addition, large
amounts of money were going
Sources
- Plutarch, Life of Caesar
says Caesar led the charge
against the Helvetti.
- Caesar’s Gallic Campaigns
wrote about his campaign
against
Ariovistus.
He
motivated his troops to fight
the Germans even though
they were scared – told them
of previous 10th legion who
-had
Caesar,just
Commentaries,
won against
boasts
about
how his
Helvetti.
troops
so well a
- Caesar were
also records
trained;
said they
“could
famous speech
by Ariovistus
suggest
what
before to
thethemselves
battle about
the
ought
to
be
done”
and
he
right
of
conquest
“… blotted out
theby
(propaganda
forforever
Caesar);
name of thethis,
Nerviis”.
recording
Caesarclear
is
bodies.” This shows
-justifying
Plutarch’s
Lives
that of
ownadds
campaign.
bias
from his
Plutarch.
- Plutarch:
Life of Pompey
60,000 Nervii only 500
records large body of
survived and “the lakes and
senators went to Luca for
rivers filled up with dead
conference.
- Plutarch/Caesar
both
describe Caesar’s ‘heroic’
victory against the Venetti
in
dreadful
winter
conditions.
55
54
5352
Germanic tribes tried again to
cross the Rhine into Gallic
territory, were again defeated
by Caesar.
- Caesar acted ruthlessly; arrested
German envoys prior to the battle
and
later
killed
all
the
- Caesar invaded Britain a second
women/children
from
the
time; little was achieved, no longGermanic tribe they had fought.
term benefits (later opened way
- Caesar built a spectacular bridge
for trade routes).
(280m by 12m) across the Rhine;
- Caesar
then
received
the
had his troops march across it and
submission
of
the
British
back, then destroyed it.
king/southern tribes.
- Caesar now invaded Britain.
- Just when Caesar believed whole
of Gaul was under control, Belgian
tribe (Eburones) led by Ambiorix
organised one of most successful
attacks
ever
against
the occurred;
Romans,
- In 52 BC
further
revolts
annihilating
1½ serious
legions yet
and for
2
was the most
commanders.
against
but53-52,
each revolt
was
Caesar. Caesar,
Between
individual
successfully
put down.
- Eburones: King Ambiorix
-Gallic
However,
tribes Vercingetorix
began to rise (of
up Arveni
52
managedGallic
to unite
all of
Gaul.
(Belgium)
tribe:
King
tribe)
in
Vercingetorix
managed to persuade
Dumnorix
Gauls
to burn their homelands,
all
the
city
of
Avaricum,
whoofrefused;
- Sabinius:
commander
legion
except
forthem
the
besieged
and massacred
its
Caesar
inhabitants.
defeated by Eburones.
-- Caesar
faced
a second
(52) Most
decisive
battleserious
was at
Alesia, where Vercingetorix had
revolt
in 54 to.
against
theencircled
Gallic tribe
town
of
large force
Caesar
the
moved
a
with
rows
of
trenches,
some
facing
led
by
Dumnorix.
town
other and
facing outwards. He created
Alesia,
Caesar quelled this revolt too but it
pits filled
caused a delay in Caesar’s plans to
peacefully annex this territory and
return to Rome.
-
14
Plutarch/Caesar
also
describe Caesar’s ‘heroic’
defeat of the Germans;
Plutarch states that 400 men
were cut to pieces.
Caesar/Plutarch regard
this as a heroic victory.
- Caesar unusually blames
Sabinius in Commentaries
for losing the battle and for
the defeat. Caesar also
describes the defiant speech
of the Gallic chieftain
Dumnorix imploring his
people to support him in a
bid for freedom.
- Caesar also had Dumnorix
- Plutarch’s Lives and
say
emotional
Caesar’sanotherCommentaries
speech
inin detail
Commentaries,
describes
the double
describe the
encounter
with
trenches,
his
motivational
talking
about
how
he
rows
of and Caesar
his
troops
his flying was
red
Vercingetorix.
speech
to
leading
them
intosubject
battle. of a
free
and
was
the
cloak
- (52) Caesar writes in
free state;
this was actually
that
Vercingetorix
wasa
Commentaries
serving
with
Roman
legions
speech
Caesar’s
originally
quickly expressing
roused with
his
but
the
Gauls policies,
against Caesar.
populares
which
passion
refers toallVercingetorix as a
Caesar
was
read to aenergy”
hostile Senate
“boundless
and
man
of terrorised any Gauls
how
he
in
53.
mentions
wavering
in their loyalty.
- Caesar in Commentaries
describes how the trenches
also
were
-
with sharp implements to reduce designed.
possibility of anyone escaping out
of Alesia or reinforcements
entering.
- Romans camped between these
two groups of trenches and fought
in both directions for days.
Eventually, Vercingetorix and his
forces capitulated.
- Trench defences:
● Trenches were 20ft wide
● Siege machines 650
yards behind trench
● Before siege machines
was a double row of 15ft
deep trenches filled with
51
- In the SW of Gaul, Caesar’s troops - Caesar’s Commentaries
water
were engaged in their last battle – describes battle at
● Siege
machines had
against the Gauls at Uxellodunum. Uxellodunum.
palisaded ramparts 12ft
- Once again, siege works were
- Suetonius
in
Caesar
high, and towers every
constructed and Caesar cut off the summarises significance of
130 yards encircled the
town’s water supply, forcing them Gallic campaign for Caesar:
trenches
to surrender.
“He reduced to the form of a
● Inside
inner trenches
- Minor revolts all now quelled; province the whole of Gaul …
were sharp stakes upon
Caesar’s
conquest
of Gaulthese
was about 640,000 miles and
50
- Caesar which
now people
used
were
complete
by end of 51 BC.
victories/money
his exacted an annual tribute of
impaled. toAs further
well, there
400,000 gold pieces. He was
power: were deep pits with sharp
first to build a bridge across
● Built
a new hidden
Forum by loose
sticks
the Rhine and caused the
● Held
lavish
dirt.
Gauls heavy losses. He also
gladiatorial
front were
8
Significance●of At
the very
Mithridatic
and Parthian
WarsBritain.”
invaded
contest/banquet
rows
3ft
apart,
which
Mithridatic War
- Suetonius also talks about
● Increased
military
pay
had
blocks
1ft
long
fitted
● Mithridates VI was king of Pontus, regionhow
on southern
he coast
usedof Black
the
(doubled),
gave Gallic
with
iron
hooks.
Sea. Was Rome’s greatest threat between
88 -63 BC, during
which
money/publicity
to build
up
slaves to associates.
Rome fought three wars against him.
his own political following in
● Mithridates aimed to take advantage of power
Rome.vacuum in Asia Minor
and build himself an empire in the region.
● Full-scale war broke out when Mithridates invaded Bithynia, which
had been willed to Rome in 75 by Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia.
15
Rome sent proconsul Lucullus to the area in 74. During the period 74
-68, Lucullus defeated Mithridates, invaded Armenia and took its
capital.
● However, Lucullus’ soldiers mutinied, and was attacked in Rome by
equestrians, who disapproved of his reorganisation of finances of cities
in Asia. Some believed he was prolonging the war.
● Lex Manilia in 66 gave Pompey the Mithridatic command. This
gave Pompey the right to make war/peace on whomsoever he
chose.
● Significance of Mithridatic war c Pompey’s eastern settlement.
This settlement demonstrated Pompe y’s skills as organiser,
administrator and diplomat.
Brought benefits for Rome c added 480 million sesterces to Roman
treasury, which raised Rome’s tribune by 70%.
Brought peace to the east.
Increase in Pompey’s support/prestige.
Parthian War
Crassus’ Parthian War
● Crassus was interested in war against Parthia because it would prove
he was a military leader like Pompey/Caesar.
– 54 c Crassus invaded Parthia with 35,000 men.
– 53 c invaded again but was defeated and killed at Carrhae. Of
40,000 Romans, only 10,000 survived.
● This Parthian war was significant as it precipitated breakdown of FT.
Caesar/Antony’s Parthian War
● Caesar was about to go to war against Parthia when he was
assassinated. However, Parthian problems continued:
– In 41 and 40 BC, Antony faced inv asion by Parthia.
– 39 cAntony attacked the Parthians in Armenia.
– During 39-38, Parthians were cleared from Syria.
– 37 c Antony invaded Parthia but was forced to retreat after
losing 17,000 men.
● After this defeat, Antony needed cash/reinforcements for his
Parthian campaigns. He had two offers; one from his wife, Octavia
(sister of Octavian) as well as Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Antony
accepted Cleopatra’s help, but not Octavia’s.
16
●
When Antony had minor success in Parthia in 34, celebrated
splendid triumph; however, was in Alexandria, not Rome. This,
combined with refusal of Octavia’s help, was an insult to Rome,
and resulted in propaganda campaign against Antony.
● Octavian made sure these activities were received badly c support
for Antony weakened.
3. Fall of the Republic
Impact of Caesar’s Assassination
● Death of Caesar in 44 did not end turmoil in Rome; the people were
angry at the assassination, which did not have the desired effect of
returning Rome to a republic.
– Antony was placed in position of immense power as consul.
– Caesar’s will was read, which named Octavian as his heir. In
addition, each Roman received three gold pieces and Caesar’s
gardens were made into a public park.
– Public funeral was approved by Senate; Anto ny’s presentation of
Caesar’s blood-soaked toga and will enraged the people, who
turned against Senate with aid of Caesarian soldiers.
– Brutus/Cassius fled Rome.
– Antony controlled the disorder/rioting, imposing his authority
over the city.
● Conspirators believed that, with death of Caesar, senatorial govt.
would automatically resume. In reality, republic was dead c
more civil wars occurred, as well was formation of Second
Triumvirate.
Formation, Activities and Breakdown of the Second Triumvirate
Background Information
Gaius Octavius (Octavian), Caesar's Heir
● Octavian was born in 63. His mother, Atia, was niece of Caesar.
● When he was 11, was granted honour of giving speech at funeral of his
grandmother, Julia. Caesar was impressed and had him elected to col
lege of pontiffs.
● Caesar was again impressed when Octavian attempted to join him on
17
his campaign in Spain in 46; soon after, Caesar wrote Octavian into his
will, giving him ¾ of his estate. Caesar sent him to Macedonia to
complete his education/receive military training.
Octavian's attempts to secure his inheritance
● Did not learn he was Caesar’s adopted son until he returned to Italy.
He decided to accept the inheritance; changed name to Gaius Julius
Caesar Octavianus, although more commonly known as Octav ian from
this point.
● Octavian now had two aims:
– To carry out his sacred duty to avenge his ‘father’s’ death.
– To prove himself worthy of such a father and if possible surpass
his achievements.
● Cicero did not trust Octavian, saying “… there are too many [allies]
around [Octavian]. They threaten death to our friends and call the
present state of affairs intolerable.”
● Octavian did not expect the cold reception he received from Antony,
who blocked Octavian’s attempts to make his adoption legally valid and
ref used to hand over Caesar’s money. Octavian reacted by borrowing
money to fulfil Caesar’s will (pay 75 denarii to each man) and also held
public
games. This won Octavian great popularity with the people.
● Antony’s behaviour towards Octavian most likely expl ained by his
jealousy/irritation at Caesar’s will, but was not worried by Octavian
himself to a great extent. If this view is true, then Antony grossly
underestimated Octavian.
Octavian's temporary collaboration with the republicans
● Political situation in Rome at this time was unstable:
– republicans:
▪ Brutus/Cassius: left for the east (Syria/Macedonia) to
raise troops/naval forces
▪ Cicero: returned to Rome; gave series of speeches
(Philippics) attacking Antony.
– Caesarians:
▪ Antony: deprived D. Brutus of his Ga IIic province, but
Brutus refused to Ieave CisaIpine GauI. Antony Iaid siege to
Brutus as Mutina.
▪ Octavian: appeaIed to Caesar’s veterans in Campania
18
and converted two of Antony’s Iegions; were now under
his command.
● Antony at this time was threat to safet y of state by attacking D. Brutus
at Mutina; however, republicans had no troops in Italy, whereas
Octavian had himself raised a considerable army from Caesar’s
veterans.
● Cicero did not trust Octavian, but decided the young man could be
used for the republican cause. Octavian’s actions were wholly illegal,
but Cicero overlooked this in interests of safety of the republic.
● Cicero was naïve if he believed the Senate could use Octavian then put
him aside once threat of Antony subsided. Senate ordered Antony to
leave Cisalpine Gaul; when he refused, consuls of 43/Octavian marched
against him. Antony was defeated, and conveniently for Octavian, two
consuls were killed; left Octavian in sole command.
Octavian's First Consulship
● Senate/Cicero now made serious mista ke c assumed they were free
from immediate threat of Antony and attempted to discard Octavian.
● Antony’s position was strengthened by addition of Lepidus, but
Octavian realised if Antony was defeated, the party who supported his
father’s assassins would gain control of Rome. Realising his best
interests lay with Antony, Octavian refused to co-operate with D.
Brutus against Antony.
● Octavian wanted the consulship; was only 20, and was an outrageous
request, which was vehemently denied. While Octavian refused t o
move against Antony, republican cause in Gaul collapsed. D. Brutus
was deserted by his legions and killed while trying to escape to
Macedonia.
● Cicero/Senate continued to reject Octavian’s demands; Octavian
marched on Rome and was ‘elected’ consul with co usin Quintus
Pedius for 43. During consulship, revoked outlaw of Antony, legalised
his adoption and set up a court to try Caesar’s assassins, who were
condemned in their absence.
Second Triumvirate (ST)
● Came into existence in 43 by means of a tribune’s la w, proposed by P.
Titius and passed in the tribal assembly on 27 November. This differed
to FT; had originally been a secret agreement between Caesar, Pompey
19
and Crassus which was not official and three men were never
recognised as triumvirs; ST was legally passed and Octavian, Antony and
Lepidus had official title of being triumvir.
Comparison of FT and ST
● Differences:
– FT was unofficial secret agreement between Caesar, Crassus and
Pompey; ST, however, was legal institution passed in the
Senate.
– Was relatively good relationship between Caesar/Pompey at
formation of FT; while they went to war in 49, were initially friends.
In ST, Antony/Octavian held much animosity towards each other;
however, needed ST to gain power against Senate.
● Similarities:
– Both triumvirates consisted of two many players (FT –
Caesar/Pompey, ST – Antony/Octavian), and had a minor member (FT
– Crassus, ST – Lepidus).
– Both triumvirates were used by the key players to support each
other; through this support, key members were able to gain power
to do what they wanted, which would not have been possible
without triumvirate.
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Members: Antony, Lepidus and Octavian
Official title: Triumviri Republicae Constituendae
Length of appointment: 5 years
Purpose of alliance: to set the state in order an d attack republican
armies of Brutus/Cassius in the east.
Powers of triumvirs:
– Absolute: powers of a dictator without the name.
– Right to nominate all magistrates in advance.
Territory controlled:
– Antony: Transalpine/Cisalpine Gaul c important: Antony had
most powerful territorial position/power.
– Lepidus: Narbonese Gaul/Spain c reflected Lepidus’ position in ST;
Narbonese Gaul/Spain were far away and not powerful.
– Octavian: Africa/Sicily/Sardinia.
First task undertaken: savage campaign of proscription (poli
tical assassinations) similar to those carried out by Sulla.
20
Purpose of proscriptions:
– Destroy the enemies of triumvirs; Caesar had shown clemency ‘did
not pay’.
– To confiscate estates in order to have money/land for troops.
● Results of proscriptions:
– Death of 300 senators (including Cicero) and 2000 equites.
– Escaped republicans joined Sextus Pompeius.
● Further activities:
– Caesar officially deified.
– Lepidus appointed consul for 42.
– Preparations made for Antony/Octavian to face M. Brutus/Cassius
in Macedonia.
●
The Proscription of Cicero
● In light of his speeches (Philippics) made against Antony, is not
surprising that Cicero’s name was included among those proscribed by
the triumvirs. His attempts to restore the republic cost him his life.
● When he was caught by triumvirs’ agents attempting to escape from
his country estate, his throat was cut. On Antony’s orders,
head/hands were cut off and taken to Rome for public display; used
as warning to other Romans.
The Battle of Philippi, 42
Brutus/Cassius marched west with their 19 legions and took up position
at Philippi in Macedonia to face Antony/Octavian’s 28 legions. In two
engagements about three weeks apart the republicans were defeated;
both Cassius/Brutus committed suicide.
● Results of republican defeat:
1. Defeat marked an effective end republican movement as
most of the leaders died fighting.
2. Octavian finally avenged murder of Caesar.
3. Triumvirs divided empire between them:
▪ Antony: control of all Gaul except Cisalpine Gaul,
which became part of Italy.
▪ Octavian: received Spain/Sardinia/Africa.
▪ Lepidus: ignored for time being; later given Africa.
●
21
Activities of the Triumvirs after Philippi
Philippi
†
The empire
was
divided, 42
Octavian
in the
west
Lepidus in Africa
Antony in the east
● Octavian returned to ● Lepidus did not ● Antony extracted
Italy to settle veterans
occupy
his
money
from
– he hoped to increase
province until
provincials of Asia
his prestige and build
41.
Minor/Syria.
up huge body of
● Established
rulers
clients.
according to their
● Land shortage forced
loyalty to Rome.
him to confiscate land
● Met with Cleopatra
of 18 towns; huge
at
Tarsus
and
outcry resulted.
accepted
an
● Rome/Italy
were
invitation to winter
threatened
with
in
Alexandria;
famine as Sextus
Antony
wanted
Pompeius, based in
some of wealth of
Sicily,
prevented
Ptolemies,
while
grain ships from
Cleopatra
needed
Treaty
of Brundisium,
40
reaching
Italy.
Antony’s help to gain
control of Egypt.
†● Antony’s brother/wife
(Fulvia)
were hostile
● Antony
was
The
triumvirs
were to
reconciled; Antony was
to marry Octavia
probably
unaware
Octavian sister;
and raised
sixhad died), an d a further division
(Octavian's
Fulvia
of the
empire
legions
him,
of war between
was
carriedagainst
out.
● Octavian
retained ● Octavian
Antony controlled
and his
but he laid siege to● Lepidus
controlled
all the provinces
them
atall the
Perusia, Africa.
brother/wife
until
provinces
west of were● Italy was shared.
from
where they
it eastwards
was over.
Illyricum
except into
Macedonia
starved
● Antony
decidedand
to
Africa.
Cyrenaica.
submission in
A conference
at41-40.
Tarentum, 37
return
to Italy in 40,
● but
Italywas
was shared.
Italy was shared.
legates in
prevented
†● Antony’s
Gaul went
over
to from Antony for his war
fromagainst
landing
Octavian
wanted
ships
Sextusat
Octavian,Antony
who wanted
now 20,000 soldiers from Octavian
Brundisium
by
Pompeius;
for his war
commanded
most An
of agreement was made, but
Octavian’s
troops.
against
the Parthians.
Octavian did
not
west
except
Civil war appeared
fulfthe
il his part.
Africa/Sicily.
imminent.
Lepidus
was persuaded to help Octavian.
The triumvirate was renewed for a further five years.
22
●
●
●
●
●
In Sicily Octavian
(with
Agrippa/Lepidus)
attacked
Pompeius,
who
was
finally
defeated in naval
battle by Agrippa
and fled east,
where he was
killed by one of
Antony’s officers.
Octavian took over
Lepidus’
troops
and also those of
Pompeius.
Octavian
dealt
with Lepidus, sent
one of his men to
occupy
Africa,
demobilised
20,000 veterans
out of 40 legions
he
now
commanded and
returned to Rome
after
settling
Sicily.
At start of the
people
to against
him by
war
clearing
Pompeius,westhadof
the ‘pirate’a Sextus
adopted
new
Pompeius
(pirate c
name:
Imperator
restriction
grain
Caesar
diviof filius
supplies),
(Commander
safeguarding
the
Caesar, the son of
north
and, through
the
god).
friends
such to
as
On
his return
Agrippa,
Rome wasproviding
granted
Roman
people
with
number
of
regular
food
supply
honours, among
and (with building
which
was
of aqueducts) good
sacrosanctity
of a
●
●
●
Lepidus tried to
take over Sicily, but
his men mutinied.
He was deposed
from
ST
but
permitted
to
remain as pontifex
maximus.
Lived under guard
in an Italian town.
●
●
●
●
●
●
23
●
Antony
sent
Octavia to Rome
and went to Syria
to organise his
Parthian
campaign.
Summoned
Cleopatra
to
Antioch; whether
he married her
then is unknown
but recognised his
children by her and
gave her (and
them) Cyrenaica,
Cyprus, parts of
Crete, parts of Syria
and Jericho, plus
some other smaller
areas
together
representing
almost all the old
Ptolemaic kingdom
at its greatest
extent.
Then left for his
Parthian campaign.
Antony marched
into Armenia with
Alexandria’.
60,000 troops but
Antony’s
behaviour
failed
in
his
in
east between
attempt
against
36-34
Parthia,can perhaps
losing
be
explained
by
22,000
men.
him
Two falling
years under
later
spell
of
Cleopatra,
(34) he invaded
whose main and
aim
Armenia
was to restore
the
annexed
it.
old
Returned Ptolemaic
to
kingdom.
Alexandria in 34
and celebrated a
triumph there, at
The end of the triumvirate, 33
†
Triumvirate was due to officially end in Dec. 33. Removal of Lepidus had
weakened it, but was Antony's treatment of Octavia (in recognising
Cleopatra as his wife) which severed the alliance.
Octavian
● In
gave
warup titleofof triumvir at end of 33; Antony
● Consuls
kept it as
forthough
32
stillpropaganda
in office.
which
were Antony’s
War
followed,
betweenOctavian
the two was inevitable.
friends,
and
had upper hand
made a speech
since he was in
in his favour in
Rome and had
Senate.
close contact with
● When
Octavian
Italian pop’n.
entered
Senate
● Inhabitants
of
with armed guard,
Italian towns/cities
consuls/proWhen
contents
of Antony's
will became known, war
was declared
on
swore
an oath
of
Antony
senators
Cleopatra.
allegiance
to
fled
to
join
Apart
from the recognition
of Ptolemy Caesar as son
of Julius Caesar
Octavian
to
Antony.
and
extravagant legacies
to Antony/Cleopatra's ●children,
support
him
Antonythe aspect
sent
that
most
horrified
the
Romans
was
his
instruction
to
send
his
body
to
against his private
notification of his
Alexandria
enemies,to be buried,
and should he die in Rome.
formal divorce to
Rivalry
and
Civil
War
between
Mark
Antony
and
Octavian: role of
provincials of Sicily,
Octavia.
Cleopatra
Sardinia,VII; Battle
Africa,of Actium
● Spain
Octavianand
used Gaul
oath oh loyalty sworn by Roman Senators, Italian
municipalities
followed
suit. and western provinces as basis for his authority/power
in following years.
● During 33-32, both sides prepared for war, using most
extreme propaganda against each other.
The Battle of Actium, 31
● Antony had gathered his forces at Ephesus; included one of greatest
fleets ever assembled. Plutarch says it numbered over 500 ships, of
whi chCleopatra contributed 60. She is also supposed to have
contributed 20,000 talents and vast supplies of grain.
● Cleopatra persuaded Antony to let her accompany the fleet; he moved
his forces to western Greece, occupying the promontory of Actium.
● Octavian crossed the Adriatic with smaller force and occupied area just
24
north of Actium, from where his troops could prevent access by
Antony to best routes to east. Agrippa not only blockaded Antony’s
fleet in Bay of Actium but also cut off Antony’s supplies/comm
unication by securing various strategic ports in Greece.
● Antony’s troops were weakened by hunger/malaria and many leading
Romans/citizen-kings deserted Antony, particularly angered by
influence Cleopatra had on him.
● Cleopatra had plan to risk everything o n naval battle and attempt to
break out with as many ships/legionaries as possible. Apparently,
however, plan was not communicated to bulk of fleet/army. The battle
was no real contest; Cleopatra/Antony escaped and sailed to
Alexandria; the remainder of Antony’s fleet/troops were captured or
surrendered to Octavian.
● Results of Actium:
1. Octavian was hailed as imperator for 6 th time.
2. Agrippa was sent to Italy to demobilise/settle veterans of
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
both Octavian/Antony’s armies. Octavian reassured restless
troops they would be paid shortly.
In 30, Octavian invaded Egypt. Antony believed Cleopatra
to already be dead and committed suicide.
Cleopatra, realising Octavian would not allow her to rule
Egypt independently, also committed suicide. Cleopatra’s
death ended 300-year-old Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt.
Octavian treated most of Antony’s Roman supporters
leniently, although he had Ptolemy Caesar and Antony’s
eldest son by Fulvia killed. Rest of Cleopatra’s children
Octavian was merciful to, whom Octavia brought up as her
own.
Egypt was annexed to Rome.
Vast treasure of Ptolemies was used by Octavian to pay
expenses of his various campaigns, to enhance his triumph
and to provide for adornment of Rome.
Before returning to Rome, Octavian spent some time
establishing his auth ority over eastern provinces/client
kingdoms. Apart from the Donations (Antony giving land to
Cleopatra/Cleopatra’s children), which were cancelled, most
of Antony’s arrangements were allowed to remain.
25
Sources on ST
Ancient
● Cicero:
– About Octavian - “He should be lauded, applauded and then
dropped.” Is expressing how he believed Senate should act towards
Octavian.
– 2nd Philippic (about Antony): “He is a sex-ridden, drunk-sodden wretch.”
Plutarch in Life of Cicero: on Antony’s orders, Cicero’s hands and he ad
were cut off and “fastened up over the ships’ rams on the public
platform in the Forum. It was a sight to make the Romans shudder.”
● Suetonius:
– The Twelve Caesars. “The underlying motive of every campaign
[of Antony] was that he felt it his duty to aven ge Caesar, and
keep his decrees in time.”
– “The victors divided between them the responsibilities of
government. ” (ST)
– Eventually, Augustus [Octavian] broke his friendship with Antony
which had always been a tenuous one, and in continuous need of
patching, and proved that his rival had failed to conduct himself as
befitted a Roman citizen by ordering *Caesar’s+ will to be opened and
read publicly.”
Modern
● A. H. M. Jones: says Lepidus allowed himself to be ordered around;
states that he had all attributes/mat erial possessions of a great noble,
but “under them there was only a lay figure. He lacked the ruthless
qualities needed for success, or indeed survival, in these [troubled]
times.”
●
Video of gallic war
- Caesar killed many
- Juluis caesar’s greatest battle
- Conquer of Gaul (France) without it, the roman empire would
look different
- Mark cobi (former professional soldier and historian)
- Neil forkner (historian)
- They both mock Caesar and Vercingtorex
26
-
Whatever is necessary for Caesar is nessary for the roman e mpire
Caesars wrote out his battle
6 years in Gaul… his emporium was for 5 yrs… he got
another extension from the triumvirate
Roman suffered a acute and long perod of fear
Ranpaging through Gaul.
cutting his way through and killing during his way
late 53 BC, declared Gaul was completely pacified.
But its not pacified.
Killed
There were general uprising, planned to kill Caesar
Csaer’s detail is skeptic
Had personal dealing with others (Caesar and vercingetorex )
It was just the being
Moving with great control.
Force marches taking over many towns , always moving
Moving in great speed… great master blitzkrieg(moving in great speed)
Attacked places less expected
Punished some towns.
Ver moves and destroyed everything in Caesar;s way
Destroy parts of his army, everything that was in use of his army
… eg.. cutting off food supply
Ppl og avaticum would not burn their town… hoping for
successful defence
Gaul knew how to build their city wall was proof from fire
All needed was time and patience and Caesar was short of these
March his men for an surprise attack.
VIDEO 2.
- Caesar believe that the support of the army is better than other
therefore he didn’t care about the others opinions of offerieng
land
- He became increasing powerful
- The Gaul… powerful and popular , brillant at craft work and very
good at sword work.
- Caesar wanted to conqor it
- Incidental.. aim is to becomet he most power politic in Rome
- Once in Gaul no imtention to leaving
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Relationship with the seate
Sudden attack Rome may have lose their general and army.
He has a great input but his skill is poor
56BC defeated the marin tribes
Caesar became the first general to rule England… rome Is impress
Vetgrtric burned caesar’s food supply
Caesar got outnumbered
What ever the sarcife is Caesar wanted to rule Gaul and
therefore Rome
He worked in SPEED
Using natural sources… river as a barrier,.
Caesar took charged over 7000 soldier.. is believed to have poor
skills in managing the soldiers.
Caesar;s army was good coz they were skilled and fascinated.
The solider is good enough that they can make deciscion in the
group, they don’t need Caesar to make decisions
Greek asset of roman asrm is that they can get back to their feet
quick after being defeated… never giving up.
Caesat built defencive wall.
One face inward towards the Vetingtric and one faceing
outwards facing the rest of the gallic coumminty.
He believe to have been a grest tatic
Caesar’s success was to his ;ersonal leadership… lo ved his soliders
personally
He was in front line in some fight.. setting examples to his soldier.
His an inspiration
Finally Caesar won… gallic communities lose
Every movement is motivated by potilical forces.
After the war, he conqured Gaul… still no t happy his ambition is to
take over rome.
Later on he moved with his to Italy and had civil war with pompey.
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