Download disease - Applied Vocational Training

VETERINARY MEDICAL NURSING 1
Version 9.1
1
Introduction
2
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
This module is designed to provide veterinary nursing students with a knowledge of Veterinary
Medical Nursing.
Topics discussed include:

Identify characteristics of healthy and unhealthy animals, record and report signs
of ill health

Provide basic information to clients on the causes of disease and how diseases
may be transmitted, prevented and the risk of zoonoses.

Maintain and provide assistance to the veterinarian in the consulting room.

Perform basic medical nursing tasks

Identify situations requiring emergency treatment and administer routine first aid

Assist the veterinarian with euthanasia and disposal
Text Books / Equipment
Students will need to purchase or have access to a
stethoscope and thermometer
Useful Reading
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 4th Ed
(2012) D.C. Blood & V.P. Studdert
Harcourt Brace & Company Ltd., London
BSAVA Textbook of Veterinary Nursing 5th Ed(2011)
Lane, Cooper and Turner
Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians 7th Ed
(2010), D. Mc Curnin, W.B. Saunders, Pennsylvania.
Nominal Study time
24 hours
Learners who believe they may already possess the knowledge and / or
skills described, may be able to obtain credit for this unit. You should
discuss with your lecturer the process of Recognition of Prior Learning
(RPL)
Photo on cover: note some reddening on the tip of nose indicates inflammation. Image: Vera Kratochvil
3
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
4
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
Module Instructions
1. Read the module material.
2. Complete any exercises required
3. Complete any assessments and submit to tutor
Should you need any help or explanation, please contact one of the
AVT staff by email or telephone.
Mailing Address:
Visit our Training Centre at:
Applied Vocational Training
PO Box 1520
Canning Vale Business Centre
Western Australia 6970
Applied Vocational Training
Unit 18, 87 - 91 Catalano Circuit
Canning Vale, Western Australia
Telephone:
Fax:
(08) 9456 1060
(08) 63130662
Web:
www.appvoc.com
Please see our website for directions
(618) 9456 1060 (Outside Australia)
(618) 63130662 (Outside Australia)
Email:
[email protected]
5
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
6
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Characteristics of healthy and
Page 11
unhealthy animals
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Cause, transmission and diagnosis of Page 57
disease
Diagnosis of Disease/ The animal’s Page 99
response to disease
Chapter 4
Treatment and prevention of disease
Chapter 5
Medical Nursing tasks
Page 131
Page 167
ASSESSMENT
To complete this module, you need to have submitted the assessments listed below.
Please fill in the details as your record of progress in this module. Assessments are in the form of
tests
Assessment
Contents
Assessment 1
Chapter 1
Assessment 2
Chapter 2
Assessment 3
Chapter 3
Assessment 4
Chapter 4
Assessment 5
Chapter 5
Date when sent
Date Received back
7
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
8
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASSESSMENTS
Revision and assessments for this module can be divided into two:


Worksheets
Assessments
Worksheets
At the completion of each chapter you need to answer the worksheets at the end of each
chapter. These worksheets are designed to assist you with your revision. All worksheets
should be completed prior to attending to the assessments in this section. Normally you DO
NOT need to submit the worksheets, however occasionally you may be asked to do so by your
tutor.
Assessments
Assessments are the mainly in the form of short tests. For correspondence students these
assessments will be sent to your mentor or be available as a download. For each chapter there
is a corresponding assessment .All of these assessments must be satisfactorily completed and
submitted for marking.
Submitting Assessments for Marking
By Email
Use
Contents
All Students
Email to
Australian and [email protected]
Overseas
Marked assessments
returned via email
will
be
will
be
By Mail
Australian
Students only
Post to address shown Marked assessments
on page 5
returned via the post
Drop in to our
Training Centre
Australian
Students only
Post to address shown Collect from our centre when
on page 5
marked or they will be posted
By Fax
Australian
Students only
Fax to number shown Our least favourite method of
on page 5
receiving marking (faxes never
seem to be reliable) Use for
emergency only.
Marked assessments
returned via the post
will
be
We attempt to mark all assessments within 7 days of them being received. Delays may occur
during term breaks and holiday periods
9
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
PLEASE ENSURE THAT ON EACH ASSESSMENT SENT IN YOU WRITE:
 YOUR NAME AND ADDRESS and
 THE MODULE AND ASSESSMENT NUMBER
Assessments are graded as a “pass” if all requirements are met, or “ hold” if further work is
needed to meet the standard required.
Where appropriate a grade will be applied to indicate your level of achievement, however the pass
mark for most assessments will be 70 %.
You are required to pass all assessments to pass this module.
When an assessment is due, it will be indicated as shown
Please complete and submit
Assessment Now
10
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
CHAPTER 1
Characteristics of Healthy & Unhealthy Animals
Outline
 Identify characteristics of healthy
and unhealthy animals
 Measure and record temperature,
pulse and respiratory rate
 Recognise when veterinary
attention is necessary
Instructions for this chapter
Complete all questions and exercises found in
this chapter using your notes and information
you might research elsewhere.
Assessment for this chapter
Complete and send in Assessment 1
11
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Introduction
12
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Chapter One Outline
Healthy Animals
Health
Physical signs
Physiological signs
Behavioural signs
Assessing the Health of Animals
Disease
History
Distant Examination
Close Examination
Temperature
Pulse
Respiration
Mucous membrane
Ancillary tests
When should an animal receive Veterinary attention?
13
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
14
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
HEALTHY ANIMALS
We often identify animals that are unwell, but how do we actually do this? What are the signs
that indicate that an animal is not in a normal healthy state?
To appreciate fully an animal’s health status, it is useful to first look carefully at the
indications or signs of a healthy animal.
Take a few minutes to consider some signs that an animal is in good health. It may be difficult
to come up with the ten answers to the study questions, probably because we tend not to note
the signs of good health, but rather notice the signs of poor health, when there is some
problem with the animal.
Exercise
Consider a healthy animal that you know or have known. Make a list of at least
ten signs that indicate this animal’s good health. Normal appetite and bright eyes
might be two examples. You do not need to send study questions to your teacher.
________________________________
_________________________________
________________________________
_________________________________
________________________________
_________________________________
________________________________
_________________________________
________________________________
_________________________________
15
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Looking at a definition of health, and an approach to detecting signs of health can be useful.
Several definitions exist, two that are commonly used are mentioned below.
Health
=
A state of physical, mental and social well-being.
Health
=
Free from disease.
One method of looking at the signs of health (or disease) in animals is to consider:
Physical signs
Physiological signs
Behavioural signs
Physical signs
These are signs associated with body structure and appearance. Some examples are:

Good body condition

Normal movement

No abnormal lumps

Glossy coat

Skin free from parasites

No abnormal odours or discharges
Physiological signs
These are signs associated with bodily functions and include :

Normal eating and drinking

Normal temperature, pulse and respiration

Normal defaecation ( passing faeces ) and urination

Normal mucous membrane colour ( gums, conjunctiva etc)

Usual reproductive cycles.
16
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Behavioural signs
These are the signs of how an animal relates with other animals and people. Of course
different species of animals will have different normal behaviour.
Some examples of normal behaviour include:

Normal social interaction with other animals and people

Lack of excessive aggression

Normal sexual and mating behaviour

Lack of vices ( excesses of behaviour such as wind sucking in horses, or
tail chasing in dogs )
When recording a sign, use the term normal or usual. For example recording appetite as a
sign of good health is not an adequate description, does it mean good appetite, no appetite,
excessive appetite??? Normal/good appetite is the proper description.
A discharge from a female animal in oestrus (heat) is a normal healthy occurrence, in cases
like this, the proper terminology would be to record no abnormal discharges.
Not all smells are abnormal!!!
17
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
ASSESSING THE HEALTH OF ANIMALS
DISEASE
Ill health or disease represents a change to the normal healthy signs of an animal that we have
already discussed. Various definitions of disease can be found, and they may be quite broad.
They include:
Disease =
Any departure from normal health.
Disease =
Abnormality of structure and function.
Usually a disease will have a recognisable set of signs or abnormalities that indicate a
particular condition. Some diseases are quite easy to recognise, for instance a common
respiratory virus (colds and flu), a broken leg, or flea infestation.
Other conditions are less easy to classify as a disease. For example:
Is a pet dog that refuses to mate, suffering from a disease?
Is a cow that produces less than the normal amount of milk, suffering from a disease?
The answer doesn’t really matter. The definition is only academic, and it is clear that whether
a broken leg, or a failure to reproduce, that it is a departure from normal health.
To be thorough, a systematic approach to the determination of an animal’s health should be
used.
Systematic Approach
History
Distance Examination
Close Examination
Ancillary Tests
18
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
HISTORY
Taking a history refers to obtaining information about the animal and recording this
information in a suitable format. It should be the first step in any assessment of an animal’s
health status and should include details that enable identification of the animal, details of its
present health status, and any relevant details of its past health.
A history can be taken without actually examining the animal, and should be done prior to any
examination.
Animal’s details
Information such as name of the animal and its owner’s details
Species, breed, sex, age,
Recent information
General attitude (is the animal bright and alert?)
Eating, drinking, urination, defaecation,
Tolerance to exercise.
Has the animal had contact with any new animals, or travelled away from its usual
home?
Past information
Is the animal sterilised? Has it been vaccinated? Has it been treated for parasites?
Any significant past illnesses.
Any major illnesses of parents, if known.
Information on current problems
What are the signs of any current problems?
How long have these problems been evident?
Are they improving, not changing, or are they getting worse?
Are any other animals affected with this problem?
The above questions are only a few of the possible questions that could be considered and are
intended to act as a guide to obtaining a reasonable history.
Each piece of data may provide valuable information about an animal’s health. In the case of
a problem, the information will assist in determining the particular problem and its likely
outcome.
19
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
A few examples of how the information may be used include:

Unvaccinated animals may need vaccination.

Diseases of young animals may be different to that of older animals.

Sterilised animals are less likely to have diseases of the reproductive tract.

Some diseases are inherited from the parents.
A comprehensive medical record includes
many details
20
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
DISTANT EXAMINATION
This is the next process, following the taking of a detailed history. It is used to gain
information on the current status of the animal and should be done by looking at the animal,
but not actually touching it.
The closeness to the animal will vary with the species: (a cow in a paddock, or bird in an
aviary or perhaps a cat on the sofa). You should be close enough to observe details of its
condition and awareness, but far enough away to observe its movement and behaviour.
Healthy appearance for a Cavalier King Charles Spaniel.
Image yourpurebreedpuppy
Many of your observations will mirror those of the history, but often the history will be
presented by someone other than yourself (the owner or carer if it is not your own). The
examination is important to determine the current state of the animal.
Some information that may be obtained from a distance examination include:

Alertness

Posture

Body condition

Behaviour

Appearance of skin or coat

Any abnormal features

Abnormal lumps

Breathing

Discharges

Movement
21
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
It is important to be aware of normal behaviour in a particular species of animal before you
can make a judgement about it. Animal behaviour is discussed a little later in this module
relating to animal handling and is discussed in more detail in the Animal Behaviour module.
Some behaviour is similar in all species, for instance normal appetite and normal drinking.
Aggressive behaviour towards other individuals may be normal in some species but is
considered abnormal in others.
The animal may be ‘divided’ into different areas, all of which can be examined during a
distant examination.
Behaviour
SIGNS OF HEALTH
SIGNS OF ILL-HEALTH
Alert
Lethargic
Bright
Depressed
Interested in surroundings
Reluctance to move
Responds to external stimuli
Change in temperament
Interacting with other animals
Aggressive towards others, hiding
in a corner
Posture
Free head movement
Stiff neck
Can stand on all feet evenly
Hunched up
Straight back
Tail hanging unmoving
Free tail movement
Difficulty sitting or lying
‘Praying’ position – rear in
air, elbows and chest on
ground
Gait
Smooth and flowing movement
Lameness or limping
Weakness in limbs
Trembling
Reluctance to move at all
22
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Ears
Symmetrical in shape
Any discharge
Pricked
Smell
Clean
Swollen flap
Respond to sound
Head to one side
Ear/s drooped
Scratching or rubbing at
Redness
Eyes
Bright
Discharge
Clear
Cloudiness
Open (if awake!)
Redness
Even shape and size
Pupils uneven size
No marks on eyeball
Eyeball or eye area swollen
Dullness
Glassy
One closed
Respiration
Regular breathing
Difficulty breathing
Nose looks moist
Panting unnecessarily
No nasal discharge
Nasal discharge
Crustiness around nose
Coughing and/or sneezing
Chest sounds such as
crackling or wheezing
Fast / slow / shallow / deep
breathing
Skin / coat
Evenly covered coat
Patches of hair loss
Smooth coat
Flaky / crusty / scabby skin
Glossy coat
Change in pigmentation
Coat lying flat (if applicable)
Dry or greasy skin / coat
Excessive scratching
Smelly skin / coat
23
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Urinary system
Urine is clear pale yellow
Frequent urination
Passing urine with ease
Difficulty in urinating
Cloudy or bloody urine
Change in volume of urine
Change in drinking habits
Strong smell to urine
Change in colour
Limbs
Symmetrical
Any swelling
All held evenly
Held at unusual angle
Asymmetry
Muscle wasting
Not using
Digestive system
Normal faeces
Excessive vomiting
Regular defaecation with ease
Diarrhoea / constipation
Normal appetite
Increased volume of faeces
Abdominal ‘noises’
Flatulence
Not eating and / or drinking
Excessive salivation
Mouth odour
Ravenous appetite
Under / over weight
Unexplained weight change
It is important to realise that the signs listed above are only very general signs and may not
apply to all animals. As mentioned previously, it is very important that the comparisons take
place with the animal in a normal state. If a Basset Hound pricked its ears up in the air,
although pricked ears are listed as a sign of health, it would in this case definitely be a sign of
ill-health as it would be abnormal (besides looking quite silly!).
24
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
So although these signs can be used as a guide for considering ill-health they are just that – a
guide.
What would be considered normal for the particular breed would also need to be a factor of
determination of health status.
In looking at signs of health and ill-health, the changes are far more important than what is
actually seen.
For some of the signs listed above, it would be necessary to get quite close to the animal, but
there would be no need to actually handle the animal. The amount of information that can be
gathered just by observation should never be underestimated. This is particularly so if the
animal is being observed in its normal habitat.
Of course it may demonstrate some different signs, especially behavioural, if in a strange
environment. The environment would then also need to be considered and it would be
necessary to determine how much influence it is having on the animal. This can be very
difficult to do.
CLOSE EXAMINATION
This is the stage at which the animal would be physically examined.
A ‘hands on’
examination would be done. The animal would be felt all over and any areas of concern
examined particularly thoroughly. The type of information that could be determined from this
type of examination is:

Detection of internal swellings

Detection of painful areas

Areas of discomfort – the animal may groan when the abdomen is touched
indicating an abdominal problem for instance.

Temperature, Pulse, heart and respiration rates

Heart and respiration rhythm

Mucous membrane colour and capillary refill time

Normality or abnormality of internal structures
25
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Many different approaches exist, one useful and common one has the following components:
1. Hands on examination of animal
2. Temperature, Pulse, Respiration
Physical examination involving hands –
on approach. Image pictrough
Hands-on examination of animal
Here the animal is felt and examined carefully from head to toe, noting any abnormalities.
On the head: ears, eyes, mouth and teeth are all carefully examined for abnormalities.
The rest of the animal down to the tail, including the legs are carefully examined.
Many abnormalities can exist, examples of a few that might be detected are:

poor teeth

eye defects

discharge from ears

sore neck

mites living in hair

lump on chest

abdominal pain

lump in mammary area

absence of one testis

blood around anus

swollen foot
26
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
All abnormalities should be recorded. Of course, not all abnormalities found will be
significant. For instance an animal may have a lump on its leg that was caused by a bump
several years ago, and now causes no problems.
TEMPERATURE, PULSE, RESPIRATION
These measurements can provide very important information about the health of an animal,
and form part of a routine health examination.
TEMPERATURE
Animals have a very well defined normal body temperature range. Some temperatures for
various species are shown in the table below.
Species
Temperature(0C)
Dog
38.3 – 39.2
Cat
38 - 39.2
Horse
37.2 - 38.6
Goat
38.5 - 40.5
These temperatures are for adult animals at rest. A temperature that is outside of the normal
range may be caused by many events, some of them quite normal and not associated with
disease.
Some normal events that may cause an elevation in temperature include

high ambient temperature ( hot day )

excitement

exercise

nervousness
27
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Some conditions that might change an animal’s body temperature include:
High body temperature
Low body temperature
Infections
Shock
Heat stroke
Hypothermia ( exposure to cold )
Pain
Severe disease
Inflammation
Anaesthesia
Convulsion
Poisoning
Fever is also known as pyrexia ( or being febrile) and refers to an elevated temperature due to
an infection or inflammation.
There are many more examples that can be found.
In the dog for instance, even with severe disease, the temperature rarely exceeds 41 o C or
falls below 36 o C.
An interesting situation may occur in the pregnant bitch just prior to giving birth, where the
temperature falls up to two degrees.
To Determine an Animal’s Temperature
A standard mercury thermometer is usually used. These can take a little getting used to
initially. A magnified view is shown below.
35
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
The mercury (the silver liquid in the bulb) will rise up the thermometer with heat. It will then
stay in the position of the highest temperature.
28
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
35
6
The numerals indicate the degrees Celsius, and are further broken down in to tenths of a
degree.
The temperature is determined by reading the top of the mercury, which is a silver colour,
against the blue or white background. Try reading the examples below and then practice with
your own thermometer using warm water (under the tap) to change the readings.
35
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
35
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
35
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
The readings in the above case are
36.6o C
, 40 .0 o C,
38.8 o C
Remember to use the tenth of a degree scale, and report the temperature using tenths of a
degree.
29
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
You may need to rotate the thermometer to be able to see the mercury properly. Many people
in the community are used to reading thermometers. Doctors, dentists, vets, nurses and many
mums. Ask for some help if you need it !!!
To take an Animal’s Temperature
The following photographs illustrate the method used for the dog. The same principles apply
to all species

Make sure the animal is properly restrained and you are in a safe position. ( Do not
attempt to take the temperature of horses and farm animals unless you are experienced
and familiar with the technique )

Shake the thermometer firmly by holding it with the thumb and first finger, a flicking
motion is best ( imagine you are trying to shake a spider off your hand !!! ). This forces
the mercury back towards the bulb, ensure the level is below 35 degrees.
30
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1

Lubricate the bottom half with vaseline, KY jelly, soap or oil. Insert the bulb end gently
( it may help to softly rotate the thermometer during insertion ) into the animals rectum.
Insert a third to a half of the thermometer. Keep hold of the thermometer.
Lubricate
35
Bulb
6
Insert up to here
7
8
9
40
1
2
Below 35
31
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1

Hold the thermometer in the rectum for about one minute, then gently remove it and wipe
it clean with cotton wool, to remove any faecal material.

Hold the thermometer up vertically and rotate until you can determine the reading.

Write down the temperature.

Clean the thermometer with cotton wool and cool water, and then clean with an antiseptic
solution. Hibitane or other antiseptics are suitable. Store thermometer.

Wash your hands.
32
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
PULSE
The pulse of an animal is the rhythmic throb due to the beat of the heart that is felt through the
wall of an artery. It is created by blood being forced through the arteries of the body, under
pressure due to the contraction of the heart.
Under most conditions, the pulse corresponds to the heart rate.
That is:
one contraction of the heart gives one pulse
As with temperature, animals have a very well defined normal pulse. Some pulse rates of
various species are shown in the table below.
Species
Pulse
Beats / minute
Dog
60 - 120
Cat
120 - 200
Horse
28 - 40
Goat
70 - 135
Usually the smaller the animal species, the faster the heart rate.
These rates are for adult animals at rest. Younger animals will generally have a more rapid
pulse . A pulse rate that is outside of the normal range may be caused by many events, some
of them quite normal and not associated with disease.
Some normal events that may cause an elevation in pulse rate include

high ambient temperature ( hot day )

excitement

exercise

nervousness
33
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Some conditions that might change an animal’s heart rate include:
Elevated heart rate
Lowered heart rate
Infections
Sleep
Fever
Hypothermia ( exposure to cold )
Heart disease
Unconsciousness
Blood loss
Anaesthesia
Pain
Severe shock
Many other events can change the rate of the heart.
Tachycardia is the term used to describe an abnormally fast heart rate.
Bradycardia is the term used to describe an abnormally slow heart rate.
Equally important in measuring the rate of the pulse, is the strength and rhythm of the pulse.
Normally the pulse is strong, and an even rhythm is evident.
It is normal for the pulse to increase slightly when an animal breathes in, and slow down
slightly as an animal breathes out. This is described as sinus arrythmia and is a normal
finding.
In some diseases the strength and rhythm may change. For instance, shock is often
characterised by a weak, irregular pulse.
To measure the Animal’s Pulse or Heart Rate
The usual method is to apply gentle, but firm pressure to an artery using the first two or three
fingers of one hand. The number of pulsations is felt and counted for one minute and then
recorded.
34
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
In small animals such as dogs, the best pulse is felt from the femoral artery which runs high
up the inside of each of the back legs.
Feeling femoral pulse in the hind limb and
listening to heart beat with stethoscope. Image
Long Beach Veterinary Hospital
In larger animals various other locations may be used depending on the species.
A horses pulse is best felt by pressing the
submandibular artery underneath the mandible
( jaw ) on the head.
It can be a difficult task to accomplish without some practical instruction and some practice.
Should you not be able to take a pulse then get some help from a trained Veterinarian or
Veterinary Nurse. A doctor or nurse should be able to show you how to determine the pulse in
a human, which may give useful practice.
35
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
The other method of determining the heart rate is to directly listen to the heart. Listening to
any internal body sounds is called auscultation. It may be done using your ear directly to the
animal, but it is much easier to use a stethoscope.
Earpiece
Connecting
Tubing
Bell
When using the stethoscope ensure that the large flat part of the bell is working. In models
that have a large and small side to the bell, you may need to hold the metal attachment to the
bell and rotate the bell until the flat white side is working.
Place the bell firmly over the area of the heart on the left side of the animal. To do this you
usually need to position the bell underneath and forward of the elbow onto the chest. If the
sound is faint, you may need to push the bell a little further forward. Get some expert help if
you need it !!
36
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Approximate
position of heart
When listening to the heart you will hear two heart sounds :
lub ...dub
These sounds correspond to the valves in the heart closing during ONE heart contraction.
Therefore it is important to note that each two sounds are equivalent to one heart beat , not
two beats.
lub ...dub
lub ...dub
lub ...dub
lub ...dub
lub ...dub
would represent 5 beats.
Measure the number of beats for one minute and write this down.
37
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Listening to a dog’s heart
Listening to a horse’s heart
Study Exercise
Determine the heart rate at rest of two people and two animals. Record these below. Get
one of your subjects to undertake a brief session ( a few minutes ) of light exercise. Record
the rates before and after exercise.
Person 1
_____________________________
Person 2
_____________________________
Animal 1
Species ______________ Rate ______________
Animal 2
Species ______________ Rate ______________
Before exercise
________________
After exercise
______________
38
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
RESPIRATION
As with temperature and pulse, animals have a well-defined normal respiratory rate.. Some
rates for various species are shown in the table below. A gentle rhythm is a normal feature of
respiration
Species
Respiratory rate
Breaths / minute
Dog
10 - 30
Cat
20 - 40
Horse
10 - 14
Goat
15 - 25
Usually the smaller the species, the faster the respiratory rate.
Note that the measurement is in breaths per minute.
These are for adult animals at rest. Younger animals will usually have a higher respiratory
rate. A rate that is outside of the normal range may be caused by many events, some of them
quite normal and not associated with disease.
Some normal events that may cause an increase in respiratory rate include

high ambient temperature ( hot day )

excitement

exercise

nervousness
39
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Some conditions that might change an animal’s respiratory rate include:
Increased respiratory rate
Decreased respiratory rate
Infections of respiratory tract
Sleep
Obstructions of respiratory tract
Poisons
Poisons
Shock
Heart disease
Hypothermia ( exposure to cold )
Pain
Severe disease
Anaesthesia
Many more examples can be found.
Dyspnoea is the term used to describe difficult or laboured breathing. This is often associated
with conditions such as an obstruction, pneumonia and heart disease. Rather than the smooth
rhythm of normal respiration, the movement may be jerky and forced, even with the animal
gasping for breath.
Apnoea describes a cessation (stopping) breathing, and will result in death unless quickly
reversed.
To measure the Animals Respiratory Rate
It may be done either by observation, or by placing a hand on the animals’ chest. It can be
quite difficult on occasions, especially if the animal is moving.
You should measure the number of breaths for one full minute. Record the values on a piece
of paper.
One full breath involves
breathing in (the chest wall expands)
breathing out (the chest wall deflates )
40
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Breathing in
Breathing out
One full breath
Study Exercise
Determine the respiratory rate at rest of two people and two animals. Record these below. Get
one of your subjects to undertake a brief session (a few minutes) of light exercise. Record the
rates before and after exercise.
Person 1
_____________________________
Person 2
_____________________________
Animal 1
Species _____________ Rate ______________
Animal 2
Species _____________ Rate ______________
Before exercise ________________
After exercise
______________
41
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Some comments

The ranges given for various species can be found in most books dealing specifically with
that species. You may find that the ranges given may vary between books and from those
given here. This is because they are an estimate, and an animal temperature pulse and
respiration may vary within limits around the normal range.

An animal’s TPR (temperature, pulse and respiration)
will constantly vary within the
normal range. For instance a temperature for a particular animal may measure 38.0 then
when checked an hour later is 38.6. This is quite normal.

A TPR provides very useful information about the health status of an animal, but is only
used as part of a whole systematic examination in the determination of an animal’s health
status.
The following table collates the estimates for TPR ranges given above.
Species
Temperature
o
( C)
Pulse
Respiratory
(Beats / minute)
rate
(Breaths / minute)
Dog
38.3 – 39.2
60 - 120
10 - 30
Cat
38 - 39.2
110 - 220
20 - 40
Horse
37.2 - 38.6
28 - 40
10 - 14
Goat
38.5 - 40.5
70 - 135
15 - 25
Animals do not get symptoms. A symptom is a perception of illness, for instance a
headache, or feeling nauseous or dizzy. Animals may well feel that way, but they
can’t tell us what they feel, so the term is not applicable to animals. The correct term
for describing some problem, is a clinical sign or just sign. This is something that we
can see or measure, such as vomiting or pain on palpation.
42
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
MUCOUS MEMBRANE COLOUR
This is a ‘test’ that is often done while carrying out TPR readings. It is carried out simply by
looking at the colour of the mucous membranes. The mucous membrane lines many of the
hollow organs in the body as well as the whole of the digestive tract, urinary passages and the
genital passages. The easiest place to assess it in the dog or cat is in the mouth (the gum
colour) or the conjunctiva of the eye. The colour should be a light pink. It should not be too
pale or too red. The capillary refill time can also be assessed very easily. The gum is simply
pressed with a finger. The capillary refill time (CRT) is the time that it takes for the pink
colour to return after removing finger pressure (which causes the patch of gum under the
finger to go white). In healthy animals the CRT should be less than 1 second (which means
the normal gum colour returns immediately).
ANCILLARY TESTS
It may be necessary to perform tests that provide further information about the health status of
an animal. Of course, these tests will need to be conducted by a Veterinarian and are used in
cases where more information is required to determine the nature of a problem.
Usually these tests require the use of specialised equipment, and may involve samples from
the animal being sent to a laboratory.
Preparing to X-ray an animal. Image: Perth
Veterinary Specialists
A summary of some of the more common tests is given below: a general description of their
use and a few common conditions that these tests may be useful for are described.
43
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
TESTS
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
haematology
clinical chemistry
USE
EXAMPLES
to examine blood cells and
blood composition
determine levels of body
chemicals
cytology and histopathology
looking at cells from the body
clinical microbiology
urinalysis
cultivating microorgansisms
that are found in or on an
animal
examining an animal’s urine
clinical parasitology
examining animal parasites
DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING AND
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY
radiography
taking radiographs using x rays
diagnostic ultrasound
using sound waves to
determine body structures
electrocardiography
using an ECG machine to
examine the heart’s function
examining a dead animal to
determine cause of death
POST MORTEM EXAMINATION
anaemia, heartworm
disease, blood loss
liver and kidney
disease.
muscle damage.
reproductive status
cancer diagnosis
bacterial diseases
viruses and fungi
diabetes, kidney
damage,
dehydration
worm eggs in faeces
skin parasites
fractures, bowel
obstructions, bladder
disease.
pregnancy
diagnosis. bladder
and kidney disease.
heart disease
heart failure
The above list is not a complete one, and only a few examples of the use of each type of test
have been given. Expert judgement is required when determining the appropriate and
necessary test to use. These tests do not form part of a routine health examination, and are
only used in cases where in the judgement of the Veterinarian, further information is needed
to determine the cause of a problem, and the appropriate treatment.
WHEN SHOULD AN ANIMAL RECEIVE VETERINARY
ATTENTION
Veterinary attention may be required should an animal show signs of illness. Any departure
from normal health may need to be investigated by a Veterinarian. Of course the experience
of an owner may determine whether a condition should be seen. A condition that has been
seen before in an animal and known to improve with or without simple treatment, may not
44
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
need veterinary attention, but if the condition persists or does not respond to treatment, then
veterinary advice should be sought.
Examples of conditions that may not require veterinary attention include :

Parasite infestations such as fleas or worms.

Mild lameness after a slight accident.

A small laceration or graze.
If however the signs persist or are associated with any other signs, then attention should be
sought. If you are not sure of the health status, then seek advice, even if the matter appears
trivial.
Veterinary Attention should be sought:
If an animal is showing signs of an illness or departure from normal health, of special concern
is if it:

Appears depressed or disinterested

Stops eating and drinking
Some conditions require urgent attention and should be treated as an emergency, they include.

Unconsciousness

Collapse with difficult breathing

Severe haemorrhage

Severe burns

Prolapsed eye

Poisoning

Snake bite

Fractures

Severe wounds

Difficult urination

Difficult birth
45
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
46
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Work Sheet 1
Completing this study sheet will help you to prepare you for Assessment 1. You do not need
to submit this worksheet.
1.
List signs that may indicate that an animal is in good health
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2.
Provide two definitions of health
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3.
Define physical signs
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4.
List four signs that may be associated with good health
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
47
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
4.
Define what is meant by physiological signs
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5.
List signs that may be associated with normal bodily functions
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
6.
Define what is meant by behavioural signs
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
7.
List four behavioural signs that may indicate an animal is unwell
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
8.
Provide two definitions of disease
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
48
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
9.
Explain what is meant by the systematic approach to determining if an animal has
disease
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
10.
List important information that may be assessed in determining an animal’s history
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
11.
List 6 observations that may be made when performing as distance examination
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
12.
What is meant by the close examination of an animal?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
13.
What is the normal rectal temperature of a dog?
_________________________________________________________________________
49
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
14.
List 5 conditions that may cause an animal’s temperature to increase
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
15.
Define the term pyrexia
_________________________________________________________________________
16.
Outline how you would take an animal’s temperature
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
17.
How is the pulse formed?
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
18.
List some conditions that may elevate an animal’s pulse rate
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
19.
Define tachycardia
___________________________________________________________________________
50
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
20.
Define bradycardia
___________________________________________________________________________
21.
Where is it best to palpate a dog or cat’s pulse?
___________________________________________________________________________
21.
Where is a horse’s pulse normally palpated?
___________________________________________________________________________
22.
What is the name given to listening of internal body sounds?
___________________________________________________________________________
23.
What does the ‘lub dub’ sound represent when listening to the heart?
___________________________________________________________________________
24.
List some normal events that may elevate an animal’s respiratory rate
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
25.
List 2 diseases or abnormal conditions that may elevate the respiratory rate of an
animal
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
26.
Define dyspnoea
_________________________________________________________________________
27.
List two conditions that may result in dyspnoea
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
51
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
28.
Outline why mucous membrane colour is assessed and how this is done.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
29.
Why are ancillary tests sometimes required to further assess an animal’s health status
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
31.
List 6 conditions that may require urgent veterinary attention (i.e. an emergency)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
32.
You are asked to find one animal to examine. This could be your own pet or a
client’s pet if you are working at a vet clinic. Complete a detailed examination of these
animals using the form below. Make an entry for each heading, even if it is “normal” that
you record. You will require a stethoscope and thermometer to complete this.
You need to hand this in to your tutor. (On the following pages)
The sheets below are a method of recording factual information about an animal health. There
are many different ways of recording this information but the important point is to ensure that
it is expressed logically and accurately.
52
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
ANIMAL HEALTH EXAMINATION
Student’s name: ______________________________
Animals Name
Owners Name
______________________________________
Not required for this report
Species
___________________
Breed
___________________
Sex
___________________
Age
___________________
HISTORY
For the following record normal, or comment if abnormal giving details.
General attitude
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Eating ______________________
Drinking
_________________
Urination
Defaecation
_________________
________________
Tolerance to exercise.
_______________________________________________
Recent contact with new animals
Travelled away from home
_____________________________________
__________________________________________
Is the animal sterilised
______________
Currently Vaccinated
______________
What vaccine ______________
Recent parasite treatment
______________
What treatment______________
Significant past illnesses
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Major illnesses of parents
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
53
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Current problems
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
How long have these problems been evident ?
_____________________________________________________________________
Are they improving , not changing or are they getting worse ?
_____________________________________________________________________
Are any other animals affected with this problem ?
_____________________________________________________________________
DISTANT EXAMINATION
Alertness
________________________________________________
Body condition
________________________________________________
Appearance of skin or coat
__________________________________________
Abnormal lumps
________________________________________________
Breathing
________________________________________________
Discharges
________________________________________________
Movement
________________________________________________
Posture
________________________________________________
Behaviour
________________________________________________
Any abnormal signs ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
54
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
Close examination
Head / neck
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Body
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Limbs
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
TPR
record values and comment on any abnormalities
Temperature
________________________________________________
Pulse
________________________________________________
Respiration
___________________________________________________
Mucous membrane colour ____________________________________________
Capillary Refill Time
____________________________________________
Any other comments
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Please complete and submit
Assessment 1 Now
55
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 1
56
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
CHAPTER 2 Cause & Transmission of Disease
Outline
 Cause of Disease
 Infectious Disease
 Zoonotic Disease
 Non-infectious Disease
Instructions for this chapter
Complete all questions and exercises found in
this chapter using your notes and information
you might research elsewhere.
Assessment for this chapter
Complete and send in Assessment 2
57
58
Chapter 2
Chapter Two Outline
Causes of Disease
Congenital
Inherited
Non-inherited
Acquired
Infectious Diseases
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
Fungi
Internal Parasites
Trematodes
Cestodes
Nematodes
External Parasites
Fleas
Ticks
Lice
Mites
Zoonotic Disease
Non-infectious Diseases
Nutritional Diseases
Hormonal Diseases
Degenerative Diseases
Metabolic Diseases
Inherited Diseases
Physical Diseases & Trauma
Chemical Diseases
Immunological Diseases
Psychological Diseases
Unknown causes
59
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
60
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
CAUSES OF DISEASES
Disease can have many causes. Often a disease will not be caused by one factor, but
by a combination of factors. For instance an animal that has poor nutrition that has
been kept in inadequate housing, is more likely to suffer from disease, than one kept in
better conditions.
This section attempts to categorise diseases according to their cause. This is a useful
approach for gaining a better understanding of animal health.
A simple classification of disease can be whether a disease is present in an individual
at birth, or whether it affects an animal after birth and during its life.
Diseases that are present when an animal is born are described as congenital. Diseases
that animal get later on, after birth or throughout its life are described as acquired
diseases.
Congenital
DISEASE
Acquired
61
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
CONGENITAL DISEASES
These are diseases that can be seen at birth. An animal gets the disease whilst still in
the uterus of the mother during pregnancy. Some examples include:
*
infection with parasites
*
abnormal body shape ( e.g. two heads, cleft palate )
*
deafness
*
blood disorders
There are many more examples of congenital diseases. Of course, many diseases that
are seen at birth can also be acquired by animals later in life ( e.g. parasite infections ).
Kitten foetus in the uterus
Some congenital diseases are fatal, which means causing the death of the animal (such
as having two heads) whilst others may not have a serious effect on the animal’s
health.
Congenital diseases can further be classified according to whether they are passed on
from the parents in their genetic make up, or caused by other factors. These can be
described as inherited or non inherited diseases.
62
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Inherited diseases
Are those which are passed on from one or both of the
parents in the genetic information (chromosomes in the
egg and sperm) given to the offspring.
Some examples include:
*
cryptorchidism ( absence of one or more testes )
*
hip dysplasia in dogs
*
some blood disorders
Non inherited diseases Are those which occur during pregnancy, but are not
passed on from the parents. Infections, the effects of
drugs, and trauma to the mother are a few possible
causes.
Some examples include:
*
rickets due to a vitamin deficiency.
*
parasite infections
*
blood incompatibility
DISEASE
Congenital
Inherited
Acquired
Non-inherited
63
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
ACQUIRED DISEASES
All the other diseases that affect an animal shortly after birth and throughout its life,
can be considered as acquired diseases. Of course there are thousands of diseases that
fit this category, including:
*
distemper in dogs
*
rabies in horses
*
sunburn
*
snake bite
*
trauma
Study Exercise
Consider some diseases or conditions that you know affect animals (or humans).
Write down ten of these below and consider whether they are either congenital or
acquired.
Disease
Classification
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
__________________
____________________
64
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
A further classification of acquired diseases includes describing these diseases as
either infectious or non infectious.
INFECTIOUS DISEASES Are those caused by living organisms that enter and
adversely affect the animal. A bacterial disease such as tetanus is a good example.
NON INFECTIOUS DISEASES Are those caused by other factors , such as
sunburn, trauma or dietary problems.
DISEASE
Congenital
Inherited
Non inherited
Acquired
Infectious
Non-infectious
65
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
These diseases are caused by living organisms entering the animal’s body and
adversely affecting the health of the animal. However there are several important
considerations about these types of diseases:
Many organisms live quite harmoniously on or within animals, without causing any
disease at all. Most animals (and humans) have populations of bacteria on the skin and
within the intestine that protect the skin, and aid in digestion.
In fact, in some cases these organisms are essential
for the life of the animal. A good example here is
the billions of bacteria and protozoans that live in
the stomach and intestines of animals that are
vegetarian, such as the horse and cow.
These
organisms digest the plant material, providing
essential nutrients for the host. Without these
organisms, the animal would not be able to live.
Organisms that are capable of causing disease are described as pathogenic, to set them
aside from the other numerous organisms that are harmless to animals and man.
These diseases or organisms can be acquired from either the environment of the
animal, such as the ground, or directly from other animals. Infectious diseases that can
be spread directly from animal to animal are described as contagious. Feline
respiratory
disease,
canine
parvovirus, and the human flu are
all
examples
of
contagious
diseases.
Cat with ocular and nasal discharge
typical of ‘cat flu’
66
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Stress will have an impact on the animal’s ability to resist disease. An animal that is
stressed, is more likely to suffer from an infectious disease, or in fact, disease in
general. In some instances, usually harmless organisms living in or on an animal may
cause disease if the animal is stressed.
Some important factors that might stress an animal include:
*
poor nutrition
*
poor housing
*
overcrowding
*
the presence of other diseases
IMPORTANT INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Infectious diseases are usually classified further according to the type of organism that
causes the disease. The more common causes are shown below.
Bacteria
Viruses
Infectious causes of disease
Fungi
Protozoans
Parasites
Some other classes of organisms such as Rickettsia ( tiny disease forming organisms )
exist, but are less frequently seen.
67
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
BACTERIA
Bacteria are tiny organisms that can only be seen under
the light microscope. Usually they need to be magnified
at least 400 times to be visible. (Approximately 0.5-5um
(micrometre) in diameter). There are numerous different
types of bacteria.
They are found everywhere in nature, on land and in water. In most instances they are
useful in breaking down dead organic matter (such as plants and animals). They are
used by some animals to assist breaking down vegetable matter in their bowel, and
humans use them to manufacture foods such as wine and cheese.
Pathogenic bacteria are those that can cause disease. Some examples of diseases
caused by bacteria include:
Tetanus
A disease affecting most domestic animals. It affects the nervous
system causing convulsions and sometimes death. The bacteria
is acquired from soil and is not contagious (passed from animal
to animal)
Abscesses
Especially in cats after fights. The bacteria are introduced
under the skin, and an accumulation of pus occurs.
Vomiting and diarrhoea
Many bacteria can damage the lining of the stomach and
intestine. All species of animals can be affected. Bacteria such
as salmonella may be involved. Of course many other causes
can be found for vomiting and diarrhoea, including viruses,
poisons and even poor diets.
68
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
VIRUSES
Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and can only be seen using an electron
microscope that magnifies in the order of 400,000 times. (Approximately 20-300
nanometres in diameter)
They have a unique structure that often resembles a
crystalline shape than that of a living thing. Viruses live and reproduce
only in the cells of plants and animals. Not all viruses are harmful, but
many pathogenic ones are capable of causing contagious diseases
(spread from animal to animal).
Some examples of diseases caused by viruses include:
Distemper
A disease affecting the dog that can result in the
death of the animal from convulsions.
Feline Respiratory Disease
Better known as cat flu. A highly contagious and sometimes
serious disease of cats.
Foot and mouth disease
A debilitating disease of livestock that can have a dramatic
effect on production of stock and a country’s economic situation
( you are unable to sell affected stock )
Human diseases
Colds, measles, chicken pox, AID’s are all examples of human
viral diseases.
69
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
PROTOZOA
Protozoans are single celled organisms that may be seen with the light microscope and
magnification as little as 50 times. (most are between 10-50 micrometres in diameter).
Magnified view of a protozoa with cilia
(tiny hair-like structures which beat
enabling the microbe to be mobile)
There are thousands of different species of protozoa found naturally in the
environment on both land and in water. They have a useful role in the environment,
being an important part of the ecosystem. In plant eating animals such as cattle and
horses they form an important part of the microbial flora of the stomach and intestine
that digest plant material.
However, occasionally these organisms can cause disease, especially if the host animal
is stressed or has an immune system that is not working properly.
Some examples of diseases caused by protozoans include:
Coccidiosis
A disease causing severe enteritis (diarrhoea features) in
animals, often blood stained and resulting in death.
Toxoplasmosis
A mild disease of cats, which may cause diarrhoea, but may also
go unnoticed, with cats carrying the disease.
It is of concern as it may cause abortion in women, if contracted
from cats.
70
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Giardia infection
A common parasite of the intestine that can cause diarrhoea in
animals and man.
Giardia: an intestinal protozoa,
common in many animals
FUNGI
Fungi are plant like organisms that are found widely in nature. Mushrooms are a large
form of fungi. Smaller ones can be seen under the microscope with low magnification,
and have a much simpler structure.
They are useful in many instances, including the production of antibiotics ( penicillin
was first produced by a fungus ) and yeast, another fungus, is well known for the
production of food and beverages ( especially by beer drinkers !)
However a few fungi may cause disease in animals.
Malassezia, a yeast (single celled
fungus)
71
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Some examples of diseases caused by fungi include :
Ringworm
Not a worm at all, but actually a fungus that may cause skin
irritation and hair loss in animals and man. It can be acquired
from other animals and can even be found in the soil.
Ear infections
Often fungi are found in association with bacteria and other
organisms in ears of animals that are badly infected.
PARASITES
Parasites may be considered as living organisms (plant or animal) that live on or
within another organism at some expense to the host.
In this case we are interested in organisms that live on or within animals, causing some
harm to them. There are thousands of parasites that have been observed, some causing
only minor problems to the host, others causing severe disease and death. These
parasites are also very diverse. A convenient way of looking at them is to consider
them as either internal parasites or external parasites.
Internal Parasites
These are the organisms that live inside the animal, and of most concern to animal
health are the helminths (or worms). They often are found in the stomach and
intestine, but may also be found in the blood, body organs and skin. These range from
a few mm in length to metres in length.
Some other parasites such as the larvae of certain insects will also live inside the body.
The bot fly in horses is one such example, where the fly larvae live in the stomach.
72
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
External Parasites
These are the organisms that live on the outside of the animal, in the skin and hair.
Predominantly these are insects of one kind or another, the common flea being a well
known example.
Internal
PARASITES
External
73
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
INTERNAL PARASITES
Important types of worms that affect animals are:
*
Trematodes ( flukes )
*
Cestodes ( tapeworms )
*
Nematodes ( roundworms )
Trematodes
These are flat, leaf like worms that may have adults that are several centimetres in size.
They may affect the liver, lungs and blood of animals. Often they have a life cycle that
involves another host other than the final host. This is called an intermediate host.
In cattle, a liver fluke that causes significant damage has an intermediate host in a
particular snail. That is, once the adult flukes produce eggs, the immature flukes must
develop in the snail, before affecting cattle again. The fluke is only found in areas
where the snails occur.
Cestodes
Cestodes are the tapeworms. They affect all domestic animals and appear as flat ribbon
like worms. They may be as small as a grain of rice, or as large as several metres. The
body of tapeworms is segmented, and all tapeworms have an indirect life cycle.
A tapeworm, notice the individual segments, each
containing hundreds of eggs
74
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
This means that once the adult worm lays eggs, these eggs must develop through one
or more intermediate hosts. Usually the adult tapeworms will live in the intestine of its
host, often causing little damage
However the developing larvae of the tapeworm may cause severe damage to the
intermediate host.
The hydatid tapeworm of dogs is one where the adult
worms live in the dog intestine causing little damage.
Eggs are passed out in the faeces of dogs,
contaminating pasture. These are then ingested
( eaten ) by sheep or other grazing animals, and cysts
form in the internal organs, these animals ( sheep )
are the intermediate hosts.
Often these cysts cause severe damage, and may even result in death. The worm will
only pass back to the dog when the dog eats one of these cysts in the intermediate host.
(In Australia the main problem is with dogs being fed sheep offal) Dogs cannot be
infected by eating the eggs directly. The parasite must first develop in the intermediate
host before it can affect the adult dog again.
A serious side to this disease occurs when children (or occasionally adults)
accidentally eat the eggs and end up with cysts in abdomen or lungs, often causing
severe disease.
Nematodes
These are the roundworms. They affect all species
of domestic animals, and can vary in size from a
few millimetres up to many centimetres. They are
basically cylindrical in shape, a large one
resembling a piece of spaghetti.
Roundworms in the intestine of a bird. Image:
the ranger
75
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Adult worms usually live in the intestines, but occasionally are found elsewhere in the
body. Heartworm in dogs is one example, where the adult worms live in the heart.
The life cycle of nematodes may be:
*
Direct
with the adult worms laying eggs, which are then consumed by
the next animal which then becomes affected.
*
Indirect
with an intermediate host involved. ( in the case of
heartworm in dogs, the larvae must pass through a mosquito before being able to reinfect a dog )
Mosquito. Intermediate host of canine heartworm
The adults themselves may cause little damage or severe damage, depending on the
worm. Often in livestock, heavy infestations with parasites will cause diarrhoea and
poor condition. It may be the larvae ( the immature worm that hatches from the egg )
that causes damage. Often the larvae before reaching an adult stage in the
intestine, will travel around the body as part of its development, sometimes causing
damage to internal organs such as the liver, blood vessels, and even the eye.
The larvae of the red worm in horses is one example where the adult lives harmlessly
in the intestine, but the developing stage of the worm may cause severe damage to an
artery supplying the intestine with blood, that in severe cases, the animal may die from
colic
76
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
EXTERNAL PARASITES
Important types of external parasites that affect animals are:
*
Fleas
*
Ticks
*
Lice
*
Mites
Fleas
Fleas affect many species including dogs, cats
and
rabbits.
They
usually
breed
in
the
environment, off the animal, and may lay
dormant in the environment for many months.
They can be seen as small creatures with the unaided eye.
They cause problems for the host in several ways:
*
skin irritation due to biting and feeding off host
*
loss of blood in severe infestations
*
cause allergies in some animals, resulting in excessive scratching
*
can transmit other parasites such as tapeworms
*
can transmit diseases ( such as myxomatosis in rabbits )
77
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Ticks
Ticks are blood sucking creatures that affect most domestic animals. They often live
off the host, moving onto the host to feed on its blood. They can be quite large ( up to
5 mm ) and are easily seen with the naked eye. Often they will have an engorged
abdomen that is full of the host’s blood.
A tick. Image tick texas
They cause disease in several ways:
*
skin irritation due to feeding off host
*
loss of blood in severe infestations
*
transmit other diseases
*
some species of ticks can produce toxins that can cause paralysis
Lice
Lice are small insects that usually feed on skin debris on
the skin of animals. They are usually quite small, but can
be seen by careful observation, with the naked eye.
Other than causing irritation they do not usually cause
severe disease. Their life cycle can be spent entirely on
the host, or some time may be spent off the host.
78
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Mites
Are small creatures (related to spiders) that live on and in the
skin of animals. They are tiny and cannot be seen with the naked
eye, but can be seen under the microscope with low
magnification.
They can be present burrowing in the skin and cause little
problem in some animals, whilst other animals lose hair and find
them most irritating. Scabies is a disease caused by a mite that
usually causes severe itching in dogs and foxes. It can also affect
humans.
In summary :
PARASITES
Internal
External
Trematodes
Fleas
Cestodes
Ticks
Nematodes
Lice
Mites
79
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
ZOONOSES
Zoonoses is a term used to describe diseases that can be transferred from animal to
man or from man to animal.
Some diseases that are zoonotic (causing a zoonoses) have already been considered
including:
* ringworm
* toxoplasmosis
* hydatid disease
* scabies
Some other important diseases that can be transmitted from animals to man include :
* rabies ( a virus )
* anthrax ( a bacteria )
* roundworm larvae
80
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES
This broad category of disease describes all those other diseases that are not caused by
infectious organisms. That is, they are not caused by bacteria or viruses or any other
living creature, but by other causes.
This is a very large and varied group of diseases and it is useful to further classify
these into more specific groups. One such classification is shown below:
* Nutritional diseases
*
Physical diseases or trauma
* Hormonal diseases
*
Chemical diseases
* Degenerative diseases
*
Immunological diseases
* Metabolic diseases
*
Psychological diseases
* Inherited diseases
*
Unknown causes
81
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Nutritional diseases
These are caused by an excess or deficiency of components of the diet.
Rickets is a disease that may be seen with dietary
deficiencies of calcium or Vitamin D resulting in
misshapen and weak bones. Obesity is another example
that may be caused by excessive food intake.
There are hundreds of diseases that have been identified
and fit into this
category.
Hormonal diseases
These diseases are associated with an excess or deficiency of a particular hormone.
Hormones are chemical messengers in the body, and abnormal levels of hormones cause
abnormal body function.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease that features excessive drinking and urinating, weight loss and
other body changes. It is caused by a deficiency of the hormone insulin.
Dozens of other hormonal diseases have been identified.
Degenerative diseases
These diseases are associated with a breakdown or wearing of tissues. Age or excessive use
often contribute to these diseases.
Arthritis is an example where the animal’s joints become worn and painful.
There are many examples of degenerative diseases seen in animals
Metabolic diseases
Are diseases caused by a change in the normal internal environment of the animal.
82
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Acidosis is a condition that describes an increase acidity of the blood, and may follow
excessive exercise.
Inherited diseases
Diseases that are passed on from parent to offspring.
Hip dysplasia in dogs, umbilical hernia in horses are two examples.
There are hundreds of examples in animals of this type of disease. It is important to note that
genetic diseases can be passed down from parents who are not showing any signs of the
disease, but are carrying information for a condition in their genetic make up.
Physical diseases or trauma
These diseases are caused by physical agents.
Trauma is commonly seen in animals that have been fighting, or have met with a car on the
road. Burns, radiation exposure (such as sunburn ), fractures and hypothermia ( excessive
exposure to cold ) are all examples.
Chemical diseases
Diseases associated with chemical agents. Most poisoning’s seen in animals fall into this
category
Snail and rat baits will often poison pets when accidentally eaten. There are many toxic
plants that will affect livestock. Some animals such as spiders and snakes can poison animals
as well.
Immunological diseases
The immune system is responsible for the animal’s response to disease.
Abnormalities are seen where a lack of response to a disease occurs such as in immuno
deficiency disease, or where an excessive response occurs such as with allergic conditions
83
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Psychological diseases
Many diseases seen in animals have a basis in abnormal behaviour.
Tail chasing in dogs, wind sucking in horses or even excessive aggression fall into this
category.
Unknown causes
Many diseases occur that have an unknown cause. Examples here include some of the
cancerous diseases.
It is important to note that this classification is not complete, but does classify most
diseases. Many diseases may have causes from several categories.
For example, obesity (excessive fat) may be caused by nutritional problems, but in some
animals it can be caused by a hormonal condition called hypothyroidism, where too little
of the thyroid hormone is found in the body. It is thought that obesity may also be
inherited from ones parents.
Arthritis (inflammation of a joint) can be caused by trauma, degeneration, infection and
even through an abnormal immune response.
It can be seen that with the above two examples, a single type of disease can be caused
in several different ways.
84
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
HOW INFECTIOUS DISEASES ENTER THE BODY
For an infectious disease to be passed between one animal and another, it must first leave one
host and then enter another. The passage of a disease from one animal to another is called the
transmission of the disease, or how the disease is transmitted.
An infectious disease can leave the host in many normal body products, such as faeces or in
respiratory droplets in the breath. Additionally, disease can leave an animal in more unusual
ways such as in vomit or blood.
The diagram below illustrates several ways a disease may leave a host
ears
faeces
eyes
respiratory
droplets
saliva
vaginal
fluids
milk
hair and
skin
urine
85
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Respiratory droplets are a common way for airborne infections such as respiratory viruses to be
passed from animal to animal. Sneezing, coughing and just breathing will produce fine droplets
of water that may contain micro-organisms.
Some other means of an infection leaving a host include:
*
Teeth and nails ( during play or a fight )
*
Blood
*
Vomit
*
Wounds or sores
*
During pregnancy across the uterus
*
Semen, vaginal discharges
*
Saliva
*
Skin and hair
HOW DISEASES MIGHT ENTER A NEW HOST
The same pathways that are used for a disease to leave a host, may be used for a
disease to enter another animal.
Any opening in that animal may allow organisms to enter the inside, such as the:
*
nose
*
mouth
*
anus
*
vagina
*
penis
Some organisms can enter the animal in other ways, some examples include:
*
passing onto or through the skin
*
entering the ears and / or eyes
*
passing through the placenta of a pregnant mother to the foetus
86
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES
Having discussed how a disease might leave and enter an animal, we now need to consider how
the disease is passed or transmitted from one animal to another.
Diseases may be transmitted either directly or indirectly.
DIRECT
DISEASE TRANSMISSION
INDIRECT
DIRECT TRANSMISSION
Here the animals have direct contact and the disease causing organisms will be transferred from
one animal to the next. Some actions that will permit direct transmission include:
*
touching
*
sucking
*
licking
*
biting
*
breathing , sneezing and coughing
*
sexual contact
87
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
INDIRECT TRANSMISSION
In the case of indirect transmission, the disease is not passed directly from one animal to another,
but instead is passed onto some other object or material with which the next animal then comes
in contact with.
Disease leaves
Infected animal
Disease enters
new animal
Object
There are numerous examples of objects or materials that can diseases can be transmitted
indirectly. Some examples are:
*
soil
*
water
*
brushes
*
blankets
*
food
*
mosquitoes
*
flies
*
peoples hands
*
injections
*
car tyres
88
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Study Exercise
Consider some other means of a disease being transmitted indirectly.
Make a note of a few in the space below.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
89
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Some specific terms are used to describe different agents that transmit diseases indirectly.
Fomites are objects which are inanimate or not alive, that can transmit a disease. Some
examples include brushes, food bowls, gloves, cars tyres, injections.
Food bowl can act as a fomite. Image waywildpets
Intermediate hosts are living creatures that transmit an infectious micro-organism, where the
disease must pass through the creature before being passed on to the next animal. Usually the
organism causing the disease will not be able to infect another animal unless it spends some
time in that intermediate host. (it usually matures there)
A tapeworm that lives in dogs, Dipylidium caninum, is
a good example here. The tapeworm eggs are passed in
the faeces, the immature tapeworm (larva) must then
develop in the flea, before it can reinfect the dog. The
eggs cannot pass the disease on to another dog unless it
first passes through the flea. The flea is called the
intermediate host for this disease.
Of course disease can be spread by flies, rats, cockroaches and many other animal pests, but
this will usually be on the surface of the animal, and the disease does not have to be carried by
the particular animal, it could just as easily be carried on a glove or other fomite.
90
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
In summary, an animal may be infected from several sources, depending on the particular
disease. Consideration should be given to the following when looking for the source of an
infection:
*
Animal’s environment
*
Animals in the same establishment
*
Newly acquired animals
*
People entering an establishment
*
Food and water
*
Bedding and other fomites
*
Air
*
Vermin
Some terms associated with examining a disease problem
Endemic
This describes the presence of a disease at low levels within a
population. For instance, if a cattery has occasional cases of feline
respiratory disease (cat flu); we can describe this as endemic. Human
flu is usually endemic in humans; there is always someone with it!
Epidemic
When the disease affects a large number of individuals at the same
time. Often the above two examples (cat flu and flu) may affects a lot
of animals or humans, there is an outbreak, and this is described as an
epidemic. For instance if 50 % of the cats in the cattery were affected,
this would be considered an epidemic. Each winter a flu epidemic
affects humans, almost everyone you know seems to get a bout of flu
around the same time of year!
Acute disease
Is a disease that comes on suddenly, often with obvious signs of
illness.
Chronic disease Is a disease that has a long duration, often being less severe than
an acute disease.
91
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Carrier
Is the term used to describe an animal that is carrying an infectious
disease. In other words, this animal can be a source of infection for
other animals.
In some cases the animal may have recovered from the disease and now
show no signs of illness, but still be carrying the disease organisms and
capable of spreading the disease. These animals pose a particular
problem in controlling the spread of disease.
Different diseases will leave and enter the host differently. For instance, a disease that is
passed via respiratory droplets will not enter the host through the skin.
Some diseases may only be transmitted by direct contact, which suggests that the organisms
cannot live off the host (the original animal) for any period of time. However some diseases
can lie dormant or survive in the environment for months or longer.
A sound knowledge of a particular disease will provide valuable information on the steps
needed to prevent that particular disease.
92
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Vet Medical Nursing 1
Work Sheet 2
Completing this study sheet will help you to prepare you for Assessment 2. You do not need
to submit this worksheet.
1.
Define the following terms
Congenital disease
_____________________________________________________________________
Acquired disease
_____________________________________________________________________
2.
3.
List four examples of congenital diseases
___________________________
_____________________________
___________________________
_____________________________
Explain the meaning of a fatal disease
_________________________________________________________________________
4
Explain the difference between an inherited and non inherited disease.
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5.
Are all congenital diseases inherited?
_________________________________________________________________________
6.
7.
List four examples of acquired diseases in animals
___________________________
_____________________________
___________________________
_____________________________
Define an infectious disease
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
93
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
8. Discuss an example where the presence of micro organisms in or on an animal may be
beneficial to that animal.
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9.
Explain the meaning of a pathogenic organism
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10.
Name 4 factors that might cause an animal to be stressed and more prone to
disease
11.
__________________________
___________________________
__________________________
___________________________
List the 5 main groups of organisms that may cause an infectious disease.
__________________________
___________________________
__________________________
___________________________
__________________________
94
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
12.
Complete the following table. For the parasites, choose one type only (e.g. fleas)
ORGANISM
Size
Useful role
Example of
disease
Bacteria
Virus
Protozoan
Fungi
Internal Parasite
External Parasite
13.
Define zoonosis and give two examples of diseases that are zoonotic
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
95
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
14.
Complete the following table
Type of Disease
Explain cause of disease
One example
Nutritional diseases
Hormonal diseases
Degenerative diseases
Metabolic diseases
Inherited diseases
Physical
diseases
or
trauma
Chemical diseases
Immunological diseases
Psychological diseases
Unknown causes
15.
Consider the situation where an outbreak of a contagious respiratory disease
occurs in a cattery. The signs of illness include sneezing, coughing and fever. You know that this
particular disease is a highly contagious virus, that can be transmitted directly, and survive
outside of the host on inanimate objects or other materials for up to 24 hours.
This disease has spread to another cattery 1 km away, and it is fairly certain that the first cattery
is the source of the infection.
96
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Suggest some possible ways that the disease could have passed from the first cattery to the
second one, the following headings should give some guidelines. Try to describe at least two
possible ways for each category. Use the back of the paper if you need more space.
People
Animals
Fomites
Insects
Other ways
97
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 2
Please complete and submit
Assessment 2 Now
98
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
CHAPTER 3 Diagnosis of Disease/Body’s Response
to Disease
Outline
 Diagnosis of Disease
 Determining the Cause of Disease
 The Disease
 Response to Disease
 Prevention of Entry into Body
 Defence to Disease
Instructions for this chapter
Complete all questions and exercises found in
this chapter using your notes and information
you might research elsewhere.
Assessment for this chapter
Complete and send in Assessment 3
99
100
Chapter 3
Chapter Three Outline
Diagnosis of Disease
Determining the Cause of Disease
Systematic approach
The Diagnosis
The Disease
Response to infectious disease
Prevention of entry to the body
Skin
Mucous membranes
Defences mechanisms on the body’s surface
Defences within the body
Non-specific defences
Inflammation
Lymphatic system
Spleen
Specific responses
Production of antibodies
Memory
Cell-mediated response
Outcomes of Disease
Resolution
Chronic condition
Death
101
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Prognosis
102
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE
Diagnosis means determining the actual cause of a disease.
This is important for determining the best means of control and treatment of a particular disease.
Looking at a particular example may help explain this concept.
Consider a rabbit with skin irritation. It may
be rubbing its skin, losing hair and feel quite
unwell, not eating properly and not keeping
its normal weight.
How do we go about treating this animal?
The first step is to establish a diagnosis. In
other words find out the cause. In this
instance there could be many possibilities. A
few are:

Fleas

Mites

Allergic condition

Sunburn

Contact with material that causes irritation
103
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Clearly it is important to determine the actual cause of the disease, as the treatment for each
different cause varies greatly. If fleas are the problem, then insecticides will be used for
treatment. But if the problem is with sunburn, then treating fleas will have no effect at all. The
animal in this case will need to be brought out of the sun.
Consider the case of a horse with a runny nose. Again there are many possible causes of this
problem. They include

Viral infection

Bacterial infection ( such as strangles )

Something is stuck in the nose ( such as a grass seed )

A tumour

Allergy
Once again, determining the cause or making a diagnosis is critical to determine the correct
treatment of the animal. If a bacterial infection is present then antibiotics will be useful in the
treatment. However if a grass seed is in the nostril, antibiotics will have no effect, and the seed
will need to be removed.
DETERMINING THE CAUSE OF A DISEASE
The cause of a disease is determined by using the same approach as used for the health
examination previously discussed. Exactly the same approach is used, in a systematic manner,
carefully recording the history and physical signs
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
History
Distant examination
Close examination
Ancillary tests
104
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Once all the information is carefully recorded, the person conducting the examination will make
a diagnosis (determine the likely cause) of the disease, which will determine the action to be
taken.
There are some special considerations that apply to making a diagnosis.
SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION
The full history and examination will generally always be performed on a sick animal. Even if
the clinician (veterinarian) has an idea of the most likely cause, the first step is to carefully find
out what condition the animal is in. Such practices as TPR (temperature, pulse and respiration)
are fundamental to a sound diagnostic approach.
There may be occasions where in an emergency, treatment is initiated immediately without a full
examination. But even in emergency case, determining the temperature, pulse and monitoring
other signs will allow the extent of the recovery to be monitored.
The history is often critical in making a diagnosis. Consider a female dog that is having
convulsions. Some possible causes include snake bite, poisoning or even a brain disorder.
However if the bitch has had pups recently, it is more likely that the convulsions are caused by
low blood calcium (milk fever) associated with lactation.
A full examination is needed in each case to accurately determine the cause of the disease. Often
the diagnosis will be made based on the history and the physical examination only. In the above
instance, the history of recent birth along with the signs of convulsions, and no evidence of
another disease being the cause, may be sufficient evidence to initiate treatment for milk fever
( which involves injecting a solution of calcium into a vein ).
In cases where the diagnosis is not clear or the animal fails to respond to treatment, ancillary
tests as described before may be used. Often these tests can be expensive, and the wise choice of
which tests to use is necessary.
105
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
THE DIAGNOSIS
Despite a full history and examination, plus appropriate ancillary tests, it may still not be
possible to make a diagnosis and determine the cause of the disease.
Some diseases are difficult to detect, even with rigorous examination. Diseases of the nervous
system can often be a particular challenge. One example is a horse that is having seizures (fits).
Despite a full examination and extensive testing it may not be clear as to the cause. It is not really
practical to take radiographs of a horse’s brain.
Many viruses are very difficult to find in the laboratory, and also the testing can be particularly
expensive.
In some cases surgery may be used to attempt to determine the cause of the disease and as a
means of collecting specimens for further examination.
An example might be a puppy that has a blockage of the bowel and is vomiting and not passing
faeces.
If other diagnostic tests such as radiographs do not reveal the cause, it may be appropriate to
perform a laparotomy (incision into the abdomen) and physically examine the bowel and
associated structures.
Should a physical obstruction be found (such as part of a slipper) it may be removed at this time.
Often conducting a post mortem examination of animals that have recently died is particularly
useful, but will not always reveal the cause of disease. With animals that are farmed ( such as
sheep ) , a very sick animal will be euthanased ( killed humanely ) and a post mortem
examination performed in an attempt to determine the cause of disease. This will permit other
animals showing the same signs to be treated.
106
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
THE DISEASE
It is true that common diseases occur commonly. For example, a dog that has recently been
boarded at a kennel and now has a cough is likely to have kennel cough. However this does not
mean that it must have kennel cough. It is possible that it has some other disease that causes
coughing such as congestive heart failure.
In the case discussed above with the bitch with milk fever, it is possible that the animal was
bitten by a snake and that that the history of recent birth is not relevant. Of course it is more
likely that milk fever is the cause, but other causes cannot be ruled out.
Generally no disease will have signs that indicate one specific diagnosis
A proper examination is essential in all cases.
107
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
RESPONSE TO INFECTIOUS DISEASE
The environment that an animal lives in is full of potentially infectious micro -organisms. The
air, ground, food and water may all contain organisms that are potentially harmful. Usually an
animal will constantly come in contact with other animals that may also be harbouring
potentially harmful organisms.
Of course, most animals enjoy a healthy existence for most of the time. This occurs because
an animal has defences against these organisms that might cause disease. An animal will only
succumb to an infectious disease if these defences do not function properly, or if the
organisms causing the disease overwhelm the animal’s defences.
These defences of an animal are referred to as immunity (the ability to resist).
The defences of an animal occur on both the outside and inside of the body. They function to
prevent micro-organisms from entering the body, and act to kill or inactivate organisms
should they enter.
Prevents organisms entering the body
Animal’s Defence
Kills or inactivates organisms
that enter the body
PREVENTING ENTRY INTO THE BODY
Several barriers and mechanisms exist in animals to prevent the entry of micro -organisms
into the body. These mechanisms are sometimes referred to as innate immunity, innate
meaning that an animal is born with these.
108
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
These processes occur on the skin and the mucous membranes (the lining membranes of body
cavities such as the mouth, the nose and trachea).
Skin
Barriers
Mucous Membranes
SKIN
The skin of an animal is exposed to the environment and other animals, and may often be in
contact with potentially disease causing organisms.
The skin acts in several ways to prevent micro - organisms entering the body, they include:
Physical Barrier
If the skin remains unbroken, the tough outer layer (the epidermis) acts as a physical barrier
preventing the entry of micro-organisms. For an infectious organism to enter through the skin,
the skin must be damaged as might happen with a cut or graze, or be punctured as might
occur in a fight or by insect bites.
Production of chemicals
Various areas of skin produce sweat, oils and wax. Most of these chemicals are harmful to
many micro-organisms.
Useful micro – organisms
Populations of bacteria live on the skin of animals without causing any harm. These are
referred to as normal flora. They live on the skin and are unaffected by the normal defences
of animal. Their presence will discourage the action of foreign, potentially disease causing
bacteria as they physically take up space where other organisms might try to invade and they
will produce chemicals that are toxic to (kill) other bacteria.
109
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
MUCOUS MEMBRANES
These are the linings of the body cavities such as the respiratory tract and the gastro intestinal tract. The lining surface of the mouth and eye (conjunctiva) are good examples of
mucous membranes.
Infectious micro - organisms may also come into contact with these membranes, and there are
several mechanisms which prevent the entry of these micro-organisms into the body.
Physical barriers
As described with the skin, the mucous membranes are fairly tough and prevent organisms
from easily entering the body. They must be damaged or overwhelmed (with a severe
infection) for organisms to pass through them.
Mucous membranes produce liquid (mucus) that will physically wash and flush away microorganisms.
Hairs or hair-like structures line the respiratory tract,
right the way down to the lungs. In combination with
mucus (the liquid produced) hairs will trap microorganisms. The large hairs of the nose form a good
Cilia
Air
passage
barrier, and further down the tract in the trachea and
bronchi,
hair-like
projections
from
the
lining
epithelium are tiny and can only be seen with the
microscope. These tiny structures are called cilia and
they all beat in a rhythmic way to transport debris
(such as dust) and trapped organisms back up to the
pharynx (in the throat) where they can be expelled or
Cilia beat
upwards
towards
mouth
swallowed.
The flushing action of liquids is important as a defence mechanism. Tears, saliva, bile (from
the liver), urine and the moist digested food all act to flush organisms away and prevent them
lodging on surfaces.
110
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Vomiting, sneezing and coughing are processes that will also assist in physically ejecting
disease causing organisms from the body.
Production of chemicals
Various chemicals are produced that have an anti-microbial action (they kill or inactivate
micro-organisms) and include:

tears

saliva

mucus

gastric acid

vaginal secretions

urine
Useful micro organisms
As described for the skin, populations of harmless bacteria may be found in the upper
respiratory tract, the gastro intestinal tract and the vagina; these bacteria have a protective
role.
111
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Defence Barriers on body surfaces
EYES
Tears wash / anti- microbial
SKIN
Tough / waterproof / anti-microbial
MOUTH
Saliva wash / anti- microbial
BLADDER
Urine wash / anti- microbial
VAGINA
anti- microbial
STOMACH
Acid anti-microbial
AIRWAYS
Mucus / hair wash / anti- microbial
As can be seen, these defences are significant, and protect the animal from the day to day
infectious organisms that it might encounter. However, there are many occasions in an
animal’s life where invading organisms will be able to pass these initial defences and actually
enter the animal’s body. Perhaps there is physical injury to the animal, or the organism is able
to pass through these defence mechanisms (the flu virus in humans is a good example of an
organism that can bypass the body’s initial defences).
Should an organism pass into the body then a new line of defence is mounted in an attempt to
prevent the organism overwhelming the animal.
112
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
DEFENCES WITHIN THE BODY
Two different processes are seen within the body should an organism enter. They are
described as being non - specific or specific.
Non-specific responses occur when any foreign organism enters the body. It doesn’t matter
what the organism is, the responses will occur. In other words, the same process will occur
without any recognition by the body of the invading organism.
Specific response occurs when the body recognises a particular organism and mounts a
defence targeted at that particular organism.
Specific
Defence in the Body
Non - Specific
113
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
NON - SPECIFIC RESPONSES
Three important processes are involved.
1. inflammation
2. the lymphatic system
3. the spleen
These processes will be the same for any organism, a virus, a bacteria or even a worm. No
recognition of the invading organism occurs, only the fact that it is foreign and should not be
in the body. These processes are aimed at destroying and eliminating the organisms from the
body.
INFLAMMATION
Most people are aware of the signs of inflammation.
Think of a splinter in your hand
or a hard knock to your leg. Inflammation is the body’s first line of response to an injury,
whether it is caused by an invading organism or any other cause (such as sunburn, or trauma,
or even a mosquito bite)
The signs of inflammation are that the affected area becomes:

red

hot

swollen

painful

with some loss of function
114
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Damage to the cells of the body causes a release of chemicals into the surrounding tissues that
cause the inflammation to occur. The most important of these chemicals is called histamine.
Histamine affects the blood vessels in the area in several ways.

They dilate (relax and become bigger) allowing more blood into the damaged area
(this causes the redness and heat)

The vessel walls become permeable (allowing materials to pass through them).
As a result of these changes to blood vessels:
Proteins involved in defence and repair leave the blood vessels
White blood cells leave the blood vessels and destroy foreign materials by engulfing
(taking within them) them. One cell might be able to destroy up to 100 bacteria.
The name of the white blood cells that act early in the inflammatory response are neutrophils.
Later in the response a different cell called a monocyte becomes involved.
When describing inflammation of a particular area in the body, the suffix
- itis is used. For
instance if inflammation of the stomach occurs, it is described as gastritis. This comes from
gastric:
referring to stomach
-itis:
inflammation of
Dermatitis: inflammation of the skin. Very mild
inflammation on the tip of the nose as evidence by
reddening.
A few examples of terminology are:

dermatitis
inflammation of the skin

enteritis
inflammation of the intestine

conjunctivitis
inflammation of the conjunctiva ( around eyes )

cystitis
inflammation of the bladder
115
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
It is most important to realise that inflammation will be caused by any damage to the affected
area. Inflammation will be caused by invading micro - organisms, but there can be many other
causes of inflammation, such as trauma, chemical damage, heat and many other agents such
as poisons.
In the case of gastritis above, it is common to see gastritis as a result of an infection with
bacteria or a virus. However gastritis could be caused by an animal eating something that is
acid or caustic. Even a tumour could damage the stomach causing gastritis.
So the terminology relating to inflammation does not tell the cause of the disease, it
indicates only that the affected organ is inflamed.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Should an organism get past the initial defences in the body, and the white cells that act in the
inflammatory process not be able to contain the infection, other defence mechanisms come
into play.
Surrounding all cells is fluid, and this fluid circulates via a network of vessels called
lymphatic vessels. This network is similar to the blood circulation, except that the vessels are
thin walled, and only carry fluid, not blood.
This system forms a type of drainage, with fluid being collected from around the cells, and
sent back towards the heart. However, along the way there are many small structures called
lymph nodes which act as filters to trap and destroy any foreign materials found in the tissue
fluids.
These lymph nodes may be as small as a few millimetres or in large animals as big as a golf
ball. They exist right throughout the animal. We are all familiar with the “glands” that may
become swollen around our own throat when we have the flu or a sore throat. These are the
lymph nodes that protect the mouth and throat area. Various regions of the body have nodes
that protect that area.
For instance, looking at an animal’s leg:
116
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
The arrows indicate the movement
of lymphatic fluid
Lymph nodes
behind the knee
If a problem occurs in the foot, the glands near the knee will trap and attempt to destroy the
invading micro - organisms. In doing so the gland will often become swollen, and may be felt
on physical examination. If the organisms get through the glands in the knee area, they may
well be trapped by the glands in the groin. All regions of the animal’s body are protected in a
similar way, with glands being found throughout the body.
The lymph nodes have three important functions, each carried out by different types of cells.
Filtration and destruction of foreign organisms
Production of lymphocytes
Site of contact for foreign organisms with immune cells to produce antibodies
These lymph nodes contain scavenger cells that are called macrophages which will consume
and destroy micro-organisms.
In addition, the lymph nodes are the site for the production of lymphocytes, white cells that
are found both in the lymph nodes and are added to the blood and found in the circulation.
The lymphocytes have an important defence role by being involved in the process that
produces antibodies. Contact with the invading micro-organisms occurs in the lymph nodes,
stimulating the production of antibodies. This process will be discussed shortly.
117
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
THE SPLEEN
Spleen
The spleen is an organ found in the abdomen of
animals. It has a similar structure to a lymph
node, but instead of filtering tissue fluid, it acts
to filter the blood, destroying any organisms that
find their way into the blood stream. It does have
other functions, and animals are able to function
normally should the spleen be removed.
In review:
Inflammation
Non - Specific
Lymphatic system
Spleen
Defence in the body
Specific
118
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
SPECIFIC RESPONSES
The non - specific responses of the body will be effective against common and mild disease
causing organisms. However a more damaging organism may not be so easily overcome, and
another mechanism described as the immune response comes into action.
There are two main features of this immune response.
1. They are active against individual organisms. That is they are specific against a
particular organism. For example, a dog may raise a response against the distemper virus.
This will be specific against this virus, and will not give any protection against another
organism such as parvovirus (that causes gastro - enteritis). The animal will have to mount
a new response to the parvovirus infection.
2. These responses have a memory. Should an animal get a disease and produce a response
to a particular organism once, then should the animal come into contact again with this
disease, a very rapid response will occur, usually preventing any disease from occurring.
All animals will mount an immune response to an infection, but when an animal is first
exposed to a new organism, it takes some time to produce the response; some animals will be
able to overcome the infection with only mild disease signs.
In the case of distemper in dogs, many animals will show signs of the disease when first
exposed. Some will recover with only mild signs of the disease such as fever, but in others the
signs may be severe and include convulsions and even death.
Should the animal again be exposed to this distemper virus perhaps a year or so later, the
immune system will immediately respond. The body will usually quickly overwhelm the
infection this time with the animal showing no signs of disease. This is due to the memory
effect.
119
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
This immune response functions in two ways
Production of antibodies
Immune response
Cell mediated response
PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES
The body recognises the structures on the surface of invading organisms, each different
organism having a different surface structure. These structures are described as antigens.
These antigens are recognised as being foreign and the animal responds by producing
antibodies to the particular antigen (or organism).
The recognition of foreign is important, or else an animal would be producing antibodies to
all the structures in its own body. This is one of the main problems with transplants in
humans, where the transplant material (such as a heart) is recognised as foreign by the body
and an immune response occurs to destroy the foreign organ. Drugs are used to suppress
(reduce) this response, but these drugs suppress the immune response in general, often
leaving the patient susceptible to infections.
The body produces antibodies which are protein molecules (a chemical made up of protein)
that are effective in destroying the invading micro - organisms. These antibodies attach to the
organism or any toxins (poisons) they may produce, by recognising the antigens of that
organism or toxin. The antibodies act by damaging the structure of the organism or toxin, or
help cause macrophages to destroy them.
It is thought that the lymphocytes that are found in the lymphatic system and the blood are
fundamental in this response. When encountering a new antigen, some change into a new cell
type called a plasma cell which produces the antibodies. Other lymphocytes stay as
120
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
lymphocytes and retain the memory of the particular antigen as protection against another
infection by that organism at a later time.
Foreign
Organisms
Lymphocyte
ANTIBODIES
Lymphocyte
with memory
Plasma cell
MEMORY
Lymphocytes are responsible for the memory process that protects an animal should it
encounter the antigen again. Usually this memory is long lasting and may last for many years.
In some cases memory is short lived and the animal may again be ill with the same disease a
second time.
Vaccination is based on this memory mechanism. An animal is given a dose of the antigen
for a particular disease, causing the immune response.
The antigen used is usually killed organisms, or living organisms that have been slightly
altered so that they do not cause the disease. However should the animal encounter the real
organism (disease), the response produced by using a vaccine (given at an earlier time) enable
the animal to mount a rapid response, killing the invading organisms and avoiding the disease.
For instance, the vaccine for preventing tetanus in animals is used by injecting an animal with
liquid that contains tetanus bacteria that have been changed so that they cannot cause the
disease, but still causes the lymphocytes to produce antibodies and memory cells.
121
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Living vaccines will generally produce a better immune response. Re - vaccination is usually
required at regular intervals to maintain an adequate level of protection
CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE
Some lymphocytes demonstrate a direct action themselves, not involving antibodies, showing
the same memory as discussed above.
This process is particularly important for infections inside the cells (such as tuberculosis),
where antibodies do not easily reach. These lymphocytes are also involved in the graft
rejection process previously mentioned.
Often both antibody and cell mediated immunity
work together in protecting the animal from disease.
OUTCOMES OF DISEASE
Should an animal acquire a disease, regardless of the cause, there are three main outcomes
possible for an animal.
Resolution / recovery
Outcomes
Chronic condition
Death
122
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
RESOLUTION / RECOVERY
An animal may be able to return to normal health showing no signs of the disease. This is
described as recovery.
In many instances some evidence of the disease remains, but the animal has no ill effects in
the long term. This is called resolution, a good example here could be an animal that has a
broken bone repaired, and although stuck with some swelling for life (from the repaired
bone), the animal has no ill effects from the injury once healing is complete.
Some animals may recover fully from an infectious disease, but still have the organisms
present in or on the animal. This animal may still be able to spread the disease to other
animals, and present a special challenge in the control of infectious disease. These animals are
called carriers.
CHRONIC CONDITION
This refers to conditions that last for longer periods sometimes indefinitely and have some
harmful effects on the animal. Diseases such as tuberculosis may affect an animal for years
causing ill health. Allergies may persist for the life of an animal; flea bite allergies are
common in dogs and are a good example of a chronic condition.
Arthritis is another chronic condition that is commonly seen in animals and people.
123
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
DEATH
Some conditions are so severe that the life of the animal is lost. Many infectious diseases will
claim the life of an animal. Distemper in dogs and tetanus in horses are examples. Of course
many other congenital and acquired diseases can cause the death of animals. Many a dog has
loved chasing cars until they actually catch one!!!
124
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
PROGNOSIS
Is the term uses to describe the likely outcome of a disease. Should an animal contract a
disease, then the prognosis will indicate what is likely to happen to that animal. Some terms
that are used with prognosis are shown in the table below.
Prognosis
Excellent prognosis
Meaning
The animal is likely to Kennel cough in dogs
recover fully
Fair prognosis
Poor prognosis
Grave prognosis
Examples
Ringworm in cats
The animal will most likely Strangles in horses
recover
A broken femur in a cat
The animal may not recover,
Parvovirus infection in dogs
but some chance exists
Tetanus in sheep
The animal is seriously ill Severe trauma
and will not likely recover
Lung cancer
The prognosis is determined by considering what happened to other animals with a similar
disease. It is not always accurate, some animals that are gravely ill will sometimes recover,
and other animals that are only slightly ill, may be overcome by the illness. Such is the course
of nature!!!!
125
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
126
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
Vet Medical Nursing 1
Worksheet 3
Completing this study sheet will help you to prepare you for Assessment 3. You do not need
to submit this worksheet.
1.
Review the process that is used to obtain a diagnosis for an animal that is sick. Use clear
headings and write in note form.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2.
Write a brief explanation of why one particular set of signs in a sick animal does not
necessarily indicate one particular disease.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
127
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
3.
Describe 3 ways in which the skin acts to prevent infectious micro - organisms
entering the body
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4.
Describe how cilia in the respiratory tract act as a barrier to infection.
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5.
List four chemicals that mucous membranes produce that may be harmful to
micro - organisms
6.
________________________
_____________________________
________________________
_____________________________
List the five main signs of inflammation
________________________
_____________________________
________________________
_____________________________
________________________
7.
Name
the
important
chemical
released
by
cells
during
inflammation.
__________________________________________________________________________
8.
9.
Name the term used to describe inflammation of
the skin
________________________
the bladder
________________________
Is inflammation always caused by an infection?
___________________________________________________________________________
10.
Explain how lymph nodes function in the defence process
_________________________________________________________________________
128
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
11.
Describe the main function of the spleen
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
12.
List the 2 main features of the immune system
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
13.
Name the 2 ways in which an animal’s immune response functions.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
14.
Explain what antigens are
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
15.
Name the white blood cells that are important in initiating the immune response
________________________________________________________________________
16.
Name the cells that produce antibodies
_________________________________________________________________________
17.
Explain how the process of vaccination affects the animal’s body to prevent
disease.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
129
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 3
18.
Describe the cell mediated response of an animal
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
19.
Name the 3 possible outcomes for an animal with a disease
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
20.
Explain what a carrier animal is
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
21.
Explain the meaning of a chronic disease and give on example of a chronic
disease that affects animals
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
22.
Explain prognosis and discuss two terms that may be used with a prognosis
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Please complete and submit
Assessment 3 Now
130
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
CHAPTER 4 Treatment & Prevention of
Disease
Outline
 Treatment of Disease
 Prevention of Disease
 First Aid
 Transporting an unconscious patient
Instructions for this chapter
Complete all questions and exercises found in
this chapter using your notes and information
you might research elsewhere.
Assessment for this chapter
Complete and send in Assessment 4
131
132
Chapter 4
Chapter Four Outline
Treatment of Disease
Medical Care
Generally supporting the animal
Clean comfortable environment
Food & water
Exercise & grooming care
Care & affection
Treating the signs of disease
Specific Treatments
Surgical Treatment
Prevention of Disease
Breeding animals to avoid disease
Keeping animals healthy
Preventing disease
Emergency Treatment & First Aid Treatment
Cardio-pulmonary Resuscitation
Controlling External Haemorrhage
Some First Aid Treatments
Dressing minor wounds
Splints
Housing an injured animal
Transporting an Injured Animal
133
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
134
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
TREATMENT OF DISEASE
There are many different approaches to the treatment of animals that have a disease. Only the
conventional ones that are proven to be effective will be discussed in this section.
Usually the approach taken to manage a disease can be described as either medical or
surgical. This is a fairly broad generalisation with some treatments involving both the use of
medicine and surgery.
Medical
Treatment of disease
Surgical
135
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
MEDICAL CARE
Medical care is the care given to an animal that does not involve surgery, and there are several
aspects to this type of care. Often medical care may just involve the use of a specific medicine
to halt the disease; however there are many more possibilities that can be considered.
Generally medical care can be considered as doing one of three things
1. Generally supporting the animal
2. Treating the signs of disease
3. Specific treatments
Generally supporting the animal
There are many actions that can be taken to ensure that the animal has its best chance of
recovering from disease. Depending on the severity of the disease, various levels of care may
be required.
An animal with an injury to a leg may just require rest, whereas an animal with a severe viral
infection of the bowel may need a great deal of care. Some general considerations are:

clean comfortable environment

minimise stress

food and water

exercise and grooming care

care and affection ( tender loving care “ TLC ” )
These may appear to be common sense, but careful consideration of these factors may
considerably alter the outcome of a disease.
136
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Clean comfortable environment
A sick animal should be in an environment that is clean, so as to minimise the occurrence of
any secondary problems
(such as infections from bacteria in the faeces, or scalding from
urine). Animals may well feel happier in a clean environment, and are more likely to recover
from disease.
Dogs in a clean kennel. Image Canine’s
Canyon Boarding
Temperature of the environment is critical in some situations. Young animals (such as
orphans) may well die due to a cold environment. Provision of warmth is a basic part of
caring for any sick animal. Animals in shock will often respond favourably to warmth.
Of course if the temperature is too hot, stress will be placed on the animal as well!
One example of providing warmth for an animal might be the situation where a lamb has
contracted pneumonia (infection of the lungs) during cold, wet weather. Antibiotics may be
useful in killing bacteria involved in the infection, but if the animal is not placed in a warm,
sheltered environment, it will very likely die, despite treatment with antibiotics.
Minimise stress
There are many things that can be done to
minimise the stress placed on an animal.
The environment as discussed above may
be critical. Other factors such as keeping
the
noise
levels
down
and
having
appropriate lighting may be important.
Some animals such as fish may require
137
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
particular hiding places, other animals may not get on with animals of a different species, or
even animals of their own species.
Attending to these matters will reduce the stress placed on the sick animal and improve its
chances of recovery.
Food and water
Animals need food and water to survive, ensuring a good quality supply of food and water for
an animal that is sick is important. If an animal has stopped feeding and drinking, it may be
necessary to force feed the animal or even supply fluids and nutrients via a stomach tube or
into the circulation (using a drip)
Exercise and grooming care
Gentle exercise, such as a walk outside may improve an animal’s recovery. Of course some
animals that are sick require strict rest. Grooming and the control of external parasites will
likely make an animal feel better. Some external parasites may stress an animal considerably
by causing irritation and even sucking its blood.
Care and affection
As with humans, a little care and affection can go a long way in making an animal feel better,
and may well improve its chances of recovery.
The type of care discussed here should be considered in all
cases of sickness, and appropriate care taken.
Of course more specific care may be required to overcome
an illness, but by taking care of these basics, often the
outcome of a disease can be improved and cause specific
treatments to be more effective.
138
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Treating the signs of disease
Often treatment of a disease is based on alleviating (reducing or removing) the signs of the
disease. A good example here is how people deal with the flu. Often aspirin is taken to reduce
the fever and headache, drugs such as pseudephedrine are used to dry up nasal secretions, and
codeine might be used to suppress the cough. All of these treatments are used to alleviate the
signs, but do not have any effect on the viral cause of the disease. The body is left to fight off
the infection on its own.
Treatments may involve the use of medicines, or may involve treatment with other methods.
In some cases the treatment may actually completely affect a cure. For instance an animal that
is badly dehydrated due to heat exposure without access to water, may be cured by the use of
intravenous fluids. There are usually several different methods that can be used to treat a
particular sign of illness.
The table below illustrates a few of these types of treatment.
Disease signs
Treatments used
Vomiting
anti - emetic ( anti - vomit ) drugs
Diarrhoea
dietary control
anti - diarrhoeal medication
Pain
pain relievers
Muscle inflammation
anti - inflammatory drugs
physiotherapy
acupuncture
Constipation
laxatives
enema
Dehydration
intravenous fluids
Hypothermia
warmth
( low body temperature )
warmed intravenous fluids
Skin allergies
soothing washes
anti - inflammatory drugs
Fits or seizures
sedatives
Coughing
cough suppressants
139
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Study Exercise
Consider some signs of disease that are seen in animals (or humans) Write down six
of these below and treatments that may be used to alleviate these signs.
Signs of Disease
Remedy used
Specific treatments
Other treatments used are quite specifically aimed at the cause of disease. For example,
antibiotics will be used to destroy bacteria that may be affecting an animal. Again, specific
treatments may be based on the use of medication (drugs) or be by other methods.
140
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
The table below illustrates a few of these types of treatment.
Cause of disease
Treatments used
bacterial infections
antibiotics
infestations with worms
anthelmintics ( anti - parasite medications )
vitamin deficiency
vitamin supplements
dietary change
external parasites
insecticides
grooming
heart disease
cardiac stimulants
reduce exercise
dietary modification
snake bite
anti - venene
Cancer
chemotherapy
radiation therapy
Diabetes
hormone replacement
dietary modification
The examples above offer a few suggestions of treatments used. Often combinations of
treatments will be used, involving supportive care, treating the signs of disease and specific
treatments. It is important to realise that one animal may show many varied signs of disease
and have more than one disease at a time.
141
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
SURGICAL TREATMENTS
Often it is decided that the best option for treatment of a
particular disease is to have surgery performed.
Surgery is generally considered to mean using an
operation involving manual cutting into an animal. It is
generally restricted to trained Veterinary Surgeons as it
involves special skills and often the use of anaesthesia.
There are many diseases that are best treated surgically.
Often diseases are treated by a combination of medical
and surgical treatment. Supportive care is an essential backup for any surgical treatment.
A few examples of conditions that may be treated surgically are shown below.
Disease
severe trauma
Surgical Treatment
suturing ( stitching ) damaged tissue
orthopaedics ( repairing damaged bones )
skin cancer
excision ( cutting out ) the tumour
blockage of bowel
laparotomy ( incision into the abdomen )
removal of obstruction
difficult birth
caesarean section ( opening the uterus )
infected abscess
opening and drainage of abscess
badly damaged tooth
tooth extraction
bladder stones
cystotomy ( cutting into the bladder )
ulcer of the cornea
suturing the eyelids closed
142
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Study Exercise
Consider some diseases that are seen in animals (or humans) Write down six of
these below and surgical treatments that may be used.
Disease
Surgery Used
Some surgical terms
- otomy
- ectomy
a suffix used to indicate cutting into. Some examples are
cystotomy
cutting into the bladder
gastrotomy
cutting into the stomach
a suffix used to indicate removal of tissue. Some examples are
hysterectomy removal of the uterus
splenectomy removal of the spleen
plastic surgery
surgery used to correct the shape and appearance of damaged
tissues
143
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
cosmetic surgery
surgery used to artificially improve the appearance of an animal, often
for the purposes of showing. Cosmetic surgery is often not approved of
by Veterinary Surgeons.
elective surgery
surgery that is not urgent and is performed at a convenient time.
Sterilisation of animals falls into this category.
Surgery is generally only used for the treatment of
animals when it is considered that other means of
treatment will not achieve a satisfactory result.
This is because surgery is a major consideration and
in itself may cause risk to the animal through both
the anaesthesia and surgery.
A note about euthanasia.
Euthanasia is the humane killing of an animal. This means that an animal is killed
without causing undue pain or distress. Euthanasia is used for animals where treatment
of a condition is not practical or likely to be helpful. In small animals, euthanasia is
performed by injection of a barbiturate drug. In farm animals they are usually shot in the
brain. Both methods bring about a quick death.
144
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
DISEASE PREVENTION
Much has previously been discussed about the relationship between stress and disease.
Keeping the stress that is placed on an animal to a minimum will improve its chances of
avoiding disease. However, not all disease can be avoided, many cattle have died from a bolt
of lightning, and there is little that can be done to prevent that!!!
There are some considerations for preventing disease or ensuring the good health of an
animal. One way of looking at these is to consider three aspects.

Breeding animals to avoid disease

Keeping animals healthy

Preventing disease
BREEDING ANIMALS TO AVOID DISEASE
It is possible with animals to use parents that are of good stock and avoid breeding with
parents that are of poor quality and are known to be carriers of disease. Many responsible
breeders are using programs to eliminate diseases that are known to be inherited. Hip
dysplasia in dogs and immune deficiency in horses are two diseases where programs to
minimize or eliminate them exist. There are dozens of other examples.
Inbreeding involves the breeding of closely related individuals, and if used too much can
produce animals that are weak and susceptible to disease.
KEEPING ANIMALS HEALTHY
This includes all the areas discussed previously in the medical treatment of disease for supportive
care. Animals that are kept well are less stressed and much less likely to suffer disease. In
review the important considerations are:

Good nutrition

Housing / pasture that is clean, with adequate room
145
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4

The animals social needs are met ( no overcrowding, no inappropriate mixing of
animals )
PREVENTING DISEASE
Using specific methods to prevent disease can be important in an animal health program.
Such methods may include

Vaccination against infectious diseases

Regular treatments against parasites

Good general hygiene
Avoiding contact with other animals that are ill can also be most effective. The isolation and
quarantine of animals that are unwell is most important in preventing disease spreading to
other animals. Other methods of avoiding diseases can be used. If infectious animals are housed
near well animals, the sick animals should always be handled last of all in a routine, so that
people and fomites do not carry disease from the sick to the healthy animals. Cleaning and
disinfection of people and equipment after handling sick animals should be routine.
Of course, in the event of an outbreak of an infectious disease, it is preferable to isolate
(move to a separate building or area) infected animals.
All new animals entering a facility should be isolated for several
weeks and handled as if they had an infectious disease, until it is
clear they are in good health.
One example of these other methods is in the control of
myxomatosis, which is a serious disease affecting rabbits that can
be spread by mosquitoes and fleas. Keeping rabbits in insect proof
areas can be most effective in preventing this disease.
146
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
EMERGENCY TREATMENT & ROUTINE FIRST AID
An emergency is a life threatening situation for an animal. Sometimes it is difficult to decide
whether a situation is life threatening. If in doubt, seek professional help. No Veterinarian is
going to mind if you are over cautious in the care of your animals
The table below indicates some conditions that are emergencies and require immediate attention,
and some conditions that are not emergencies, but should be attended to as soon as possible. An
emergency should be dealt with at that time, whether it be a Sunday or 2.00 am in the morning.
The non - urgent cases should be dealt with when a clinic is open
(not usually later than the
next day)
Emergencies
Non-urgent
Unconsciousness
Abscess
Collapse
Not eating or drinking
Uncontrollable haemorrhage ( bleeding )
Lethargy
Snake bite
Small wounds or controllable haemorrhage
Poisoning with insecticides or snail baits
Mild lameness
Convulsions or seizures
Blood in the urine or faeces
Prolapsed eye
Mild burns
Severe lameness that has come on Diarrhoea
suddenly
Severe trauma : open wounds or fractures Ear infection
or burns
Emergencies
Non-urgent
Difficult breathing
Coughing / sneezing
Snake bite
Constipation
Straining to urinate ( if male animal )
Excessive itching
Difficult birth ( dystocia )
Swelling of the abdomen ( bloat )
Swelling on body
147
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
It is not always difficult to judge whether an illness is an emergency. Many of the situations
listed above are quite clear, but the history may also change the perspective on an urgent case.
To illustrate this, a male cat that is straining to urinate may well have a blockage of the urethra
that can quickly result in no urine being passed and the possible death of the animal. This is an
emergency, yet a female cat with the same signs will likely have cystitis, an infection of the
bladder, that is not urgent or life threatening.
Diarrhoea in a young pup that has blood in it could indicate the presence of Parvovirus
infection, a potentially deadly disease that needs urgent attention. Yet another pup may get
diarrhoea because it has been drinking milk, this of course is not urgent.
As you can see, it is not always easy to come to a decision. Only a few examples of emergencies
have been given in the table above, many other situations can be urgent, and specialised
knowledge may be needed to make that decision.
If you are unsure, seek professional advice, don’t wait.
148
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is used when an animal has collapsed and is unconscious.
It has stopped breathing and its heart has stopped. Without treatment, this animal will not recover
and die.
There are many circumstances where this could come about, including:

trauma ( such as with a motor vehicle accident )

poisoning

heart disease

during anaesthesia

heat exhaustion
There are 3 objectives of CPR and they are often known as A B C
A
Establish an open airway
B
Provide ventilation to replace breathing
C
Compress the heart to create circulation
Depending on the size and species of animal, CPR may be used at a different pace. Generally the
larger the animal, the slower the heart rate and breathing, and the slower CPR is performed.
Before commencing CPR you should always ensure you are in a safe situation yourself (eg
off the roadside)
149
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Airway
Clear the airway by extending the animals neck, look into the mouth and throat to
ensure it is clear. Remove any foreign material (such as food or vomit).
Breathing
An animal may be respirated by blowing into the nose (making sure the mouth is
closed). Use a cloth or an inverted funnel, direct contact with an animal’s nose
and your mouth is not recommended.
Another method is to compress the chest wall by pressing on the ribs of the
animal when it is on its side. This is less effective than blowing.
For a medium sized dog, give
3 full breaths in 5 seconds
Then one breath every 5 seconds. Continue until animal breathes unaided
Circulation
Check to see if there is a heartbeat by feeling the chest wall or checking for a
pulse. If the heart is not beating, commence external cardiac compression (ECC)
by laying the animal on a flat surface, and using both hands press on the chest
wall above the elbow of the animal (as high towards the head as possible ).
For a medium dog,
Give 10 - 15 quick compressions (one every second or two) then
stop
and give one breath.
If two people are available, give 5 compressions and then one breath.
Check every minute or so to see if the heart has restarted.
Seek Veterinary help as soon as possible. In a veterinary hospital, the animal would be intubated
(a tube placed into the airway) and respirated with oxygen.
If after 4 minutes the animal does not recover, the animal can be considered dead, and CPR
should be stopped.
150
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
CONTROLLING EXTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE
Bleeding on the surface of the body is usually caused by trauma of some kind. In most cases
bleeding can be controlled by applying direct pressure to the area that is bleeding.

Use a wad of gauze (not cotton wool that tends to leave fibres) and place this over the area of
bleeding, holding it there with firm pressure (a folded handkerchief can be used if no gauze is
available).

Keep the pressure on for five minutes, do not dab and do not peek. If possible elevate the
area above the level of the heart.

Check after 5 minutes to see if the bleeding has stopped, if it has not, continue for another 5
minutes.

LIM
B
Site of
bleeding
Gauze pad
APPLY FIRM
PRESSURE
151
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
If bleeding persists, put another wad of gauze over the first, surround the area with cotton wool
(at least 3 or 4 cm thick) and then bandage with an elastic bandage to create pressure. Then seek
Veterinary advice. A pressure bandage should not be left on for more than a short time unless
advised or applied by the Veterinarian.
In the case of a limb, the whole limb should be wrapped in cotton wool, then the whole limb
wrapped with an elastic bandage that creates a firm pressure
Cotton wool
LIM
B
Gauze pads
elastic
bandage
LIM
B
Site of
bleeding
FIRST AID FOR SOME EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
The study of first aid can be quite extensive, and treatments involve a great degree of skill.
Always seek professional help after quickly giving first aid.
Some examples of first aid procedures are shown in the table below
Condition
First Aid
Heat stress
Place the animal out of the sun.
( hyperthermia )
Cool with running tap water from a hose
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Prolapsed eyeball
Cover eye with moist gauze pad
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
152
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Snake bite
Put a pressure bandage on the limb or area that has been bitten
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Convulsions
Restrain animal on a stretcher or flat surface away from obstacles
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Open wound
Cover with moist gauze pad ( add antiseptic to pad if available )
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Poisoning by eating
Remove poison from animals reach
snail baits or
Induce vomiting if possible ( ipecac syrup or salty water may work )
insecticides
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Poisoning by
Wash animal thoroughly to remove as much poison as possible
contact on skin with
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
poisons
Fracture of limb
Immobilise using a splint
Restrain animal to stop use of limb
Seek immediate Veterinary attention
Dressing Minor Wounds
There is a plain effective method of dressing minor wounds such as small lacerations, burns or
puncture wounds. Basically 3 steps are involved:
1. Dressing
2. Padding
3. Bandaging
Dressing

The dressing should be sterile if possible; gauze is usually the best material to use as it will
not stick to the wound.

It should be several layers thick

It should cover the wound and an area outside the wound.

Can be used with an antiseptic.
153
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Wound
Dressing
Padding

The padding should be soft to avoid damage to the area and absorbent to soak up any
discharges.

It should be used generously to protect the area

Cotton wool is most suitable and useful
With a limb, at least one layer of cotton wool should surround the leg on top of the dressing.
Dressing
Padding
154
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Bandaging
The whole dressing should be held together
with a bandage. Usually for a light dressing,
an elastic bandage is useful. Often these
bandages can be secured with a metal clip.

Apply pressure that is firm, but not
tight

Bandage only over the padding

Overlap each layer by about a third
to a half

Use an adhesive tape to secure the
bandage
Should a dressing be needed low down on a limb,
it is best to enclose the toes in the bandage. This is
to avoid excessive swelling of the toes which can
occur if they are not included. Padding should be
put around and in between the toes, before the
bandage is put on.
These types of dressings should be changed every
few days at the longest. It may be preferable to
check a dressing each day. If a dressing becomes
excessively wet, then it
should be changed.
155
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Cotton Wool
SPLINTS
Are used to provide support for an area on a limb that is
injured. They may be used to treat sprains and some
fractures.
Limb
They usually involve a dressing that has a very thick
layer of padding with some strengthener built in the
bandage on top of the padding, but underneath or
within the bandage.
Pieces of metal or wooden rod may be useful. In an emergency, rolled up newspaper can be
used.
A Robert Jones bandage is a very useful splint that can be used to immobilise a limb. Often a
Robert Jones dressing will be used in place of a cast (usually made of hard materials such as
plaster of paris, that cannot easily be removed), where the dressing needs to be regularly
changed.
It consists of an extra thick layer of cotton wool being used as padding, which is then tightly
wrapped with an elastic bandage to create a firm splint.
156
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
HOUSING SUITABLE FOR AN INJURED ANIMAL
An injured animal will need to be confined, observed closely and it may not be able to urinate
and defaecate outside of its area. So special considerations for injured animal housing are:

Animal should be warm, dry and comfortable

Area should confine the animal not allowing too much room for walking around and
be no bigger than necessary

The housing should be positioned to allow easy monitoring

It should be easy to clean

It should be quiet
Cat recovering from surgery in a cage
157
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
TRANSPORTING AN UNCONSCIOUS ANIMAL
Care needs to be taken when transporting an unconscious animal. There are several
considerations.

The airway must be kept open. Pressure must
not be put on the neck of the animal or the
mouth and nose obstructed.

The animal should be secured. If it is a small
animal, then it can be securely carried by
placing an arm in front and behind. If it is a
large animal, it may need to be placed on its
side on a flat board or blanket, and then
carefully moved. The head and neck should be
extended to ensure it can breath.

An animal not being carried
should be tied so that it cannot fall
during transport.

Padding may be needed if the
animal is to be transported any great
distance. This should be placed
under the head, shoulder and hip
areas to avoid pressure damage to
nerves.
158
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4

An animal that is unconscious may not be
able to regulate its body temperature as
well as normal, so it should be kept warm.

It may urinate and defaecate during
transport, so ensure the animal and its
transport can be easily cleaned.

Cats should always be caged. Should they
recover during transport; a distressed cat can be difficult if loose.
159
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
160
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
Vet Medical Nursing 1
Worksheet 4
Completing this study sheet will help you to prepare you for Assessment 4. You do not need
to submit this worksheet.
1.
List the 3 main principles of medical care
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2.
List four actions you could take to provide supportive care for an animal.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3.
Explain how providing a clean comfortable environment for a sick animal may
assist in its recovery.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4.
List 3 examples of treating the signs of a disease.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
161
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
5.
List 3 specific treatments for disease.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6.
List four diseases where surgical treatment may be used
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7.
Explain how it is possible to breed animals to avoid disease.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8.
Name 3 methods used to prevent disease in animals.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
162
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
9.
Consider you have an outbreak of a disease in a flock of valuable llamas. There is no
specific treatment for this disease. What general steps could you take to ensure as many animals
as possible return to normal health?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
10.
In the table below, list four examples of emergencies and four examples of cases that are
not emergencies, but should receive attention as soon as possible.
Emergencies
Not Emergencies
163
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
11.
What action should you take for a sick animal that you are unsure whether it requires
urgent treatment?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
12.
Briefly describe the ABC of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. How would you
perform this on a medium sized dog?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
13.
Draw a diagram to explain how you would control external haemorrhage on a
limb.
164
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
14.
Name the three steps involved in dressing a minor wound.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
15.
Describe four considerations when housing an injured animal.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
16.
Describe four considerations when transporting an unconscious animal
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Please complete and submit
Assessment 4 Now
165
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 4
166
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
CHAPTER 5 Some medical topics
Outline

Identification of general clinical equipment

Maintaining the consulting room

Restraint of patients

Administer medication

Preparation of vaccines

Bandages, splints and cast care

Preventing mutilation of self or dressings

Nebulisers

Handling biological wastes

Euthanasia and disposal of pets
Instructions for this chapter
Complete all questions and exercises found in
this chapter using your notes and information
you might research elsewhere.
Assessment for this chapter
167
Chapter 5
168
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Chapter Five Outline
Identification of general clinical equipment
Maintaining the consulting room
Restraint of patients
Administer medication
Preparation of vaccines
Bandages, splints and cast care
Preventing mutilation of self or dressings
Nebulisers
Handling biological wastes
Euthanasia and disposal of pets
169
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
170
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMAL TREATMENT EQUIPMENT
You should be able to identify and describe the use of thermometers, stethoscopes, syringes
and needles.
THERMOMETERS
In chapter 1 the use of thermometers was discussed. Here we shall briefly look at the different
types of thermometers commonly used in practice. There are two rectal thermometers
commonly used in practice:

Mercury thermometer

Digital thermometer
Mercury thermometers are made from glass so care must be taken not to drop them as glass is
a hazard as is the mercury contained within the thermometer. Mercury thermometers may take
over 30 seconds to register the animal’s temperature.
Digital thermometers are battery operated with a reading given after sometimes as little as 10
seconds. It is important to set the thermometer in Celsius rather than Fahrenheit which may be
the units of temperature used in some countries.
Digital thermometer showing temperature
reading in Celsius
As discussed in Chapter 1 the temperature is
normally taken by the rectal method however there are also available thermometers that take
the animal’s temperature via the ear. These ear thermometers are often extremely quick but
must be designed for animal use to be accurate.
171
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
An aural (ear) thermometer. The narrow end is
gently placed into the external ear canal of the
animal
INJECTIONS
Hypodermic syringes are used to hold solutions for injections. The term hypodermic means
“under the skin”, these devices are usually just called “syringes” and come in a variety of
sizes. They are usually made of plastic and considered disposable (that is they are thrown
away after one use), although it is possible to sterilise them after use for a few times.
They are supplied pre sterilised in a plastic wrapper. The most common sizes range from 1 ml
to 50 ml. They are graduated (markings) from one hundredth of a ml on small syringes, to
every one ml on large syringes. The nozzles that connect to the needle when attached can
either be found in the centre or on the side of the end of the syringe.
172
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Nozzle
Barrel
Different positions of
nozzles looking from
the end of the barrel
Small volume syringe
Plunger
A large volume hypodermic syringe
Needles are attached to the syringe to enable the injection through the skin of the animal.
Needles are disposable and one use usually causes them to become use, they are rarely reused.
They do need to be disposed of into a sharps container. They come pre sterilised and in a
plastic wrapper. The smaller the gauge of the needle, the larger the bore (the tunnel which
fluid goes through)
Some needles
173
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
They are usually found from size 14 gauge (very thick) to about 25 gauge (thin).
An 18 gauge needle would commonly be used to collect blood from a horse
A 21 gauge needle would commonly be used to collect blood from a dog
A 25 gauge needle would commonly be used to inject into a cats vein
Hub attaches to
syringe
Shaft
Bevel the sharpened
end that is injected
into animal
When connecting the needle to a syringe that has an eccentric hub ( one at the outside of the
barrel), then it is important that the bevel be facing upwards.
Correct
Incorrect
174
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Various intravenous catheters are used to maintain a “line” into the blood stream for the
administration of fluids or medication, these are much better to use than a needle because
needles can be dislodged easily and the sharp point can penetrate the other side of the vein.
There are three main types:
1. Butterfly Catheter
Like needles these have sharp points and can penetrate the other side
of the vein if not careful, but due to the plastic “butterfly” piece they
are easier to be secured to the limb and less likely to be dislodged.
2. Over-the-needle Catheter
The needle is used to direct the catheter into the vein and
then removed so the soft catheter is all that touches the
vein itself. It is much less likely that infection and
irritation will occur with this. This is the common catheter
used in fluid administration.
3. Through-the-needle Catheter
These are much longer and more appropriate for use in the external jugular vein. They are the
only catheters suitable for monitoring central venous pressure.
175
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
OTOSCOPE AND OPHTHALMOSCOPE
These pieces of equipment are found in all consulting rooms and are used for examination of
the ears and eyes.
Otoscope
Ear examination
Ophthalmoscope
Eye examination
The nurse is usually required to ensure that this equipment is kept clean at all times. These
both have a strong built in light to enable examination of the animal, and the nurse is often
relied upon to ensure that batteries used are fully charged so that the equipment can be used
at all times.
Otoscope
Ophthalmoscope
176
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
MAINTAINING THE CONSULTING ROOM
(Information regarding this section is found in your text books and in this module)
The nurse is usually responsible for ensuring that the consulting room (the room in which
patients are examined) is kept in a clean and functional condition.
This is extremely important as this is the area where clients will come to with their animals,
and form an impression of the service of the practice. An unclean consulting room that is
poorly stocked, or with equipment that is not functional, is a sure way of losing clients.
Some considerations:
At the beginning of each day

The consulting room should be cleaned thoroughly

The room should smell pleasant.

All consumables should be restocked ( such as needles, syringes, swabs )

All equipment should be present and clean (stethoscopes and thermometers have a habit
of walking away from the consulting room, often in the pocket of the vet!!!)

Rechargeable equipment should be checked.
Periodically during the day

Check to see that the room is still clean and pleasant smelling.

Top up any supplies that are low.
RESTRAINT OF PATIENTS
All information regarding this section is found in your text books
177
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
ADMINISTERING MEDICATION
Medicines can be given to the animal via various routes:

Orally (via the mouth)

Rectally (an enema or suppository)

Parentally (via injection)

Topically (put on skin, eyes, nose, ears or mucous membranes)
Which route is chosen depends on the:

chemical properties of the drug (e.g. some react with the acid in the stomach and
cannot be given by mouth)

rate of absorption (e.g. you give the drug by intravenous injection for a quick action)

the patient (e.g. some are too aggressive to be given anything orally)

convenience for the operator (e.g. not many owners would like to give their pet an
injection)
Procedure for oral administration tablet (cat or dog):
1.
Restrain patient
2.
Open the animals’ mouth, either by holding the top jaw and putting a pointer
finger in the space next to the canine and pressing on the roof of the mouth OR
holding the top jaw with one hand and using the other hand to hold the
tablet
and
by
pull
down on the jaw.
3.
Place the tablet at the back of the mouth
4.
Close the mouth and watch for the animal to swallow
178
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Procedure for oral administration of a liquid (cat or dog)
1.
Put the liquid in a syringe
2.
Hold the muzzle and tilt the head back
3.
Place the nozzle of the syringe in the side of the mouth behind the canines
4.
Slowly administer the medication
5.
Hold the animals head firmly and watch for them swallowing
Procedure for administering a subcutaneous or intramuscular injection to a
dog or cat
1.
Select a sterile needle and syringe and draw up the required amount of drug
2.
Restrain the patient
3.
Moisten the skin with a spirit swab
4.
a.
For subcutaneous injection – insert the needle under the skin
(commonly over neck or ribs)
b.
For intramuscular injection – insert the needle at right angles into the
muscle (the most common site is the quadriceps),
5.
Pull back on the syringe plunger if no blood appears, inject.
If blood appears you have entered a blood vessel and a new site must be
6.
Massage the injection site
7.
Dispose of needle and syringe properly
selected
179
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Procedure for administering an eye ointment or eye drops
1.
Open ointment
2.
Restrain animal
3.
Approach the animal from the side with the tube of ointment / bottle of drops
so
as not to frighten them
4.
a.
Squeeze a line of drug on the lower inner eyelid. Do not touch the
surface of the eye with the nozzle.
b.
Lift upper eyelid by pushing on eyebrow area upwards and place drops
onto white area (sclera) of eye
5.
Allow the patient to blink and so disperse the medication over the eye.
Procedure for administering ear cleaner for dog or cat and cleaning the ear
1.
Restrain animal
2.
Hold pinna of ear and place nozzle of bottle (containing ear cleaning fluid) into
ear
canal and squeeze bottle gently
3.
Massage the external auditory meatus (see text)
4.
Step back and let the animal shake its head
5.
With a tissue clean the external pinna and as far into the ear as your finger can
reach
6.
Repeat above steps until ear appears clear of debris
Procedure for administering medication orally to a horse
Most de-wormers come in “dose-syringes” that have an adjustable wheel on the plunger that
is used to set the “based on weight” dose. Be careful to take the time to work out your horse’s
weight.
1.
Once your syringe is ready, approach you horse slowly and stroke your horses of his
nose.
2.
Once the horse has relaxed, gently insert the syringe into the corner of his mouth,
placing the syringe tip over the middle of the tongue and unload the contents.
180
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Once the contents of the syringe are in the horse’s mouth, lift the head up by pressure
3.
under the jaw as the horse will tend to shake his head and spit out as much of the medicine as
possible
Preparation of vaccines
Many vaccines are prepared and administered under supervision by veterinary nurses. A few
considerations are important.

Ensure the vaccine has been stored correctly.

Use careful hygiene when preparing a vaccine

If the vaccine is presented in a dried form, ensure it is properly mixed with the diluent
(usually sterile water).
Use vaccines that have been made up immediately as they may lose their effect if left at the
wrong temperature
BANDAGES, SPLINTS AND CAST CARE
A brief introduction to bandages was included in the last chapter, in this chapter we shall
expand on the subject.
Uses of bandages:
Reasons for bandaging an animal include:

Protection: this may be from contamination of a wound, or to protect the animal from
damaging the area

Compression: reduction of swelling, this may also be used to reduce haemorrhage

Aid in attaching a splint

Immobilization: useful in fractures
181
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
There are typically 4 layers to a bandage:
1.
Dressing or contact layer: this is usually non-adherent and is best if it is sterile as it
contacts the wound.
2.
Layer for absorption. This layer absorbs exudates or blood from the wound.
3.
Protective layer (protects wound and holds dressings in place) – usually a layer made
of an elasticated material. This is a conforming layer.
4.
Covering/protective layer (provides support and protection)
Dressings
There are many different types of dressings that have different functiond depending on the
type of wound. Some common examples include:

Paraffin impregnated gauze: examples include paranet or jelonet. This material is
oily but does not adhere to the wound. It is available in individual sterile packets or in
a container with many dressings.
Paraffin gauze

Melolin: highly absorbent combination of cotton and acrylic fibre with a thin film on
one side. The dressing is applied with the film side to the wound.
Melolin dressing: non-adherent
182
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Absorption layer
This layer is composed of cotton wool or a synthetic variation (soffban). It absorbs blood and
discharges from the wound. It also provides comfort and prevents rubbing by padding the
area.
Soffban: synthetic absorbent layer
Conforming layer
This layer keeps the bandage together with its elasticated bandage material. It is usually an
elasticated gauze type material but cohesive bandage as discussed next is also sometimes used
as conforming bandage.
Protective layer
Zinc oxide tape – an adhesive, non-elastic, nonconforming tape. Commonly used to hold bandages in
place so they don’t unwind. Usually tan coloured.
Example is leucoplast.
Zinc Oxide tape. Image: Smith & Nephew
Elastoplast is another adhesive tape commonly used as a
protective layer. It has adhesive on one side and
Roll of elastoplast
Cohesive bandage: A material that adheres to itself but not to
the patient. Can also be used as a bandage but its better use is as a covering material.
Examples include Vetwrap and Coban.
183
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Vetwrap a veterinary cohesive bandage
Cast Materials
Fibreglass – lightweight material that is quick to set and is made using cold water
Plaster of Paris – very cheap. Plaster is impregnated into a roll of gauze. Use cold water to
wet and then apply. Once dry it sets hard but will soften if it gets wet again.
Hexalite – activated by hot water, dries very quickly and is very strong and radiolucent
Care of Bandages and Dressing
Constant (at least twice daily) checks of bandages should be maintained.
One should look for odour, oedema (swelling) and discharge or skin irritation.
If you can see the toes or any area above or below the bandage, check to see if there is any
swelling as this may indicate that the bandage is on too tight.
When going outside for exercise on a lead it is
important the dressing does not become soiled
or wet. Cover the bandage with plastic but
remember to remove it when you come back
inside otherwise the bandage will “sweat” and
become moist internally.
184
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
PREVENTING MUTILATION OF SELF OR DRESSINGS
Elizabethan collars can be purchased or a home-made version can be used. A common
bucket with the base removed can be quite effective. For small animals a plant pot can be
used. The base is then tied to the animal’s collar using gauze.
The handle is
discarded
Gauze is used to
tie onto the collar
The base of the
bucket is cut off
A commercial Elizabethan Collar
Nebulisers
Nebulisers are devices that atomise medication (make it into
minute particles) then introduce it into the air for inhalation.
Most people are familiar with the pump Nebulisers used by
human sufferers of asthma. Various types are occasionally used
to treat animals with respiratory problems.
Handling biological wastes
All information regarding this section is found in your text books
185
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
186
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
Vet Medical Nursing 1
Worksheet 5
Completing this study sheet will help you to prepare you for Assessment 5. You do not need
to submit this worksheet.
1.
Describe the two main types of rectal thermometers
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2.
Describe the function of the stethoscope.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3.
List the different types of oral (given via the mouth) medication used in animals
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4.
Describe the main advantages of using oral medication
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
187
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
5.
Briefly describe the procedure for oral administration of a tablet.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6.
List the various types of topical medication used on animals
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7.
Describe how to administer ointment to the eye of an animal.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8.
Describe how to administer ear drops to an animal.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
188
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
9.
List the four main reasons for bandaging an animal.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
10.
List the two main types of dressings used
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
11.
Name and describe the main properties of different bandaging materials
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
189
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
12.
Describe two covering materials
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13.
Describe two materials used for casts
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14.
Discuss the important aspects of caring for bandages, casts and splints
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
15.
List 5 methods of preventing an animal from chewing or licking at a dressing or at
itself.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
190
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
__________________________________________________________________________
16.
Using your textbooks draw a diagram showing the difference between subcutaneous,
intramuscular and intradermal injections
17.
Draw a diagram to illustrate the use of an Elizabethan collar.
Please complete and submit
Assessment 5 Now
191
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1
Chapter 5
192
Applied Vocational Training
Veterinary Medical Nursing 1