Download A Simulation of Natural Selection

A Simulation of Natural Selection
Name____________________________
Introduction
Evolution is a process that changes the genetic makeup of a population over time. Presumably, those genetic changes
are reflected in changes in the phenotypic makeup (the observable characteristics) of the population. This exercise will
demonstrate the effect of natural selection on the frequencies of three populations of “beetles.” Natural selection, as
formulated by Charles Darwin in “Origin of Species (1859)”, is the most important cause of evolution.
An individual’s ability to reproduce depends on its ability to survive. It all gene variations conferred on every individual
the same capacity to survive and reproduce, then the composition of a population would never change. If a variation of
a characteristic increases an individual’s ability to survive or allows it to have more offspring, that variation will be
naturally selected. Darwin reasoned that the environment controlled in nature what plant and animal breeders
controlled artificially. Given an overproduction of offspring, natural variation within a species and limited resources, the
environment would ‘select’ for those individuals whose traits would enable a higher chance of survival and hence more
offspring in the next generation.
Purpose
In this activity we will use three different beans to represent heritable variations in beetle morphology (size and
coloration of carapace). These three beetle morphs will be studied in two different habitats.
Outline of Procedure
1. Working with a partner, count out exactly 10 each of lima, pinto, and kidney beans. These represent each beetle
type; the three types are equally common initially.
2. You will choose 2 habitats and perform the procedure the same way in each one. You will have 2 habitats: dark
marble and light marble. The point is that the two substrates must be of different colors. Label your data table
with the type of habitat for both Habitat #1 and Habitat #2.
3. Scatter your beans randomly over an area about one square meter. This will be your predator foraging area.
The beans must be scattered (toss), not dumped in a small pile.
4. One person will be the designated predator for the habitat. (Switch roles for the second habitat). The predator
will ‘eat’ (pick up) exactly 20 beans. Remember to think like a predator, i.e. pick up what you see first as quickly
as you can. Place the 20 beans picked up and put to the side of your ecosystem. Leave the rest of the beans on
the ground. They have survived the predator and will live to reproduce (their offspring will be represented by
adding beans to adjust the population size back up to 30, line F).
5. Count the number of each bean collected (make sure to have exactly 20) and record the numbers on line B.
6. Subtract the number of each kind eaten (line B) from the number you started with (line A), to obtain the number
of survivors (line C)
7. Assume that each survivor has two different offspring. Record those values in line D. These are the numbers of
each bean that need to be scattered with the survivors to bring the population back up to exactly 30. Count out
and scatter the required number of beans into the same area as your P1 survivors. Now complete line E by
adding lines C and D. These are your P2 or second generation populations.
8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 two more times and complete the table for Habitat #1. Remember, the offspring
values tell you how many beans of each type need to be scattered into your predator foraging area.
9. Pick up all your beans when you are finished. Repeat the entire procedure in Habitat #2.
Summary of Beetle Captures
Habitat #1
Lima
Pinto
A
P1
B
“Eaten”
C
“Survivors” (A- B)
D
“Offspring” (2C)
E
P2 (C + D)
F
“Eaten”
G
“Survivors (E-F)
H
“Offspring” (2G)
I
P3 (G+H)
J
“Eaten”
K
“Survivors” (I-J)
L
“Offspring” (2K)
M
P4 (K + L)
Kidney
Total
Habitat #2
Lima
Pinto
Kidney
Analysis
1. How did your results differ for the two habitats? Why was there a difference, if any?
2. What were some limiting factors that your group encountered during this lab?
3. How did activity replicate natural selection?
4. What variables were missing to determine what was truly the ‘successful’ beetle population?
Total
Name _________________________
Date ___________________
Advanced Placement Environmental Science Chapter 4: Ecosystem Interactive
1. A group of individuals of the same species is called a(n) ___________________________________
2. The different species of organisms that occupy a particular place with the nonliving environment.
______________________
3. ______________ completes the cycle of breaking down wastes and remains into abiotic chemicals.
4. What is the fuel of the sun? ______________________
5. What absorbs most UV radiation, where is it? _______________________________
6. What would the Earth be like without the greenhouse effect? _____________________________________
7. With an input of energy, ____________________________ can be assembled into complex organic
compounds.
8. Sketch both matter recycling and energy flow in the example ecosystem:
9. Sketch the process that makes ATP energy, what is ATP energy?
10. What is the main staple of the red fox diet? ________________________ When are insects most abundant
for the fox? ___________________________
11. How is a grazing food web different than a detrital food web?
12. If 1,000,000 kilocalories are received from the sun (based on SS animation), how much of this energy (in %
and kilocalories) is captured by the producers? ________________________________ Of that %, what
%/kilocalories is transferred to 1st level herbivores? __________________
13. An example of a 1st trophic level organism would most likely be ________________________________
14. An example of a 3rd trophic level organism would most likely be _______________________________
15. The ___________________ hold(s) .001% of the total amount of water in the water cycle.
16. Where is most of the carbon in the carbon cycle? _____________________________
17. How does N2 in the atmosphere end up as Ammonia (NH3 ) _________________________________
18. Which process whereby specialized decomposer bacteria convert nitrogen rich wastes and dead bodies of
organisms into NH3 and NH4? _________________________________
19. The _______________ __________phase of the phosphorous cycle is more rapid than the other phases.
20. In marine ecosystems, what takes up phosphates first? _____________________________
21. Who or what produces islands of guano in the phosphorous cycle? ________________________
22. Which activities produces SO2 in the sulfur cycle?
Name _______________________
Chapter 5/6 Evolution and Biogeography Interactive Exercises
1. In Stanley’s Miller’s experiment list the gases used to represent Earth’s early atmosphere:
____________________, ___________________, ____________________, ___________________
2. What gas that is essential today was not around during Earth’s early atmosphere?_________________
3. After the gases went through the condenser and exposed to electrical sparks what was produced?
________________________________________________________________________________
4. When did chemical and molecular evolution produce the first living cells? _____________________
5. What and when were the first organisms responsible for oxygen to accumulate in the atmosphere?
______________________, ______________________________
6. What single-celled organism gave rise to all animals, fungi and heterotrophic and photosynthetic
protistans and plants? ______________________
7. Based on the adaptive trait interaction, what coloration pattern is most adaptive when pollution levels
are high? _______________________
How does this change when pollution levels decrease, why? __________________________________
8. What was the event that in the 1800’s that led to darker trees in England? _______________________
9. What method would lead to the disappearing of intermediate phenotypes? ______________________
10. What method would lead to the disappearing of extreme phenotypes? ______________________
11. What model of speciation is represented with soft angled branching? ________________________
12. If there is horizontal branching what does this represent? ____________________________________
13. What does a dotted line represent on an evolutionary tree? ________________________________
14. How would you know if an organism is extinct on an evolutionary tree? ________________________,
What can be presumed about most species? _____________________________________
15. On the coast, when is there usually an onshore breeze? ____________________________
16. What is the primary force for surface currents? ___________________
17. How do currents flow in the Northern Hemisphere? ___________________________
18. What is the reason for cool, foggy weather along the Pacific Northwest? _______________________
19. Why are winters milder in London than in Ontario? _______________________________________
_____________________________________________________
20. What latitudes generally have the most rainfall, what type of Biomes exists here?
______________________________, _____________________________________________________
21. Where and why do deciduous forests thrive? ________________________________________
22. What is the cold upward movement of deep water called? _______________________________
23. How are El Nino years different than normal airflow years? __________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
24. As the concentration of greenhouse gases increases, what two factors change? _____________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
25. What greenhouse gas has slightly decreased in concentration since 1995? _______________________
26. List 2 tertiary consumers of the rainforest food web: ________________, ________________________
APES- Eating at a Lower Trophic Level
Background
A trophic level, or feeding level, is made up of all the organisms whose energy source is the same number of
consumption steps from the sun in a given ecosystem. The trophic level of plants or producers is 1, while that of
herbivores is 2 and that of animals that eat herbivores is 3. Higher trophic levels can exist for animals even higher on the
food chain. In this exercise you will compute numerical values for human energy needs based on diets at different
levels.
Problem
The owner of a soybean farm raises guinea hens for food and insect control. Guinea hens will eat grasshoppers other
insect pest and ticks. They also act as a ‘watchdog’ by making a lot of noise when intruders approach their territory.
The farmer allows the hens’ free range in his fields during the day and provides roosts for them at night.
For the purposes of exercise, you make the following assumptions:
- A farmer lives on 1 hen per day for a year
- 1 hen eats 25 grasshoppers per day
- 1,000 grasshoppers have a mass of 1 kg
- 1 grasshopper requires about 30 g of soy beans per year
- 1 human requires about 600 grasshoppers per day
- Soybeans have 3.3 calories per gram
QUESTIONS
SHOW ALL YOUR MATH USING PROPER UNITS (on back of this sheet)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Calculate the number of grasshoppers a hen eats per year.
How many grasshoppers are needed for a year’s supply of hens for the farmer each year?
What is the total mass, in kilograms, of the grasshoppers needed to feed all the hens for one year?
How many kilograms of soybeans are needed to feed all the grasshoppers for one year?
Suppose the farmer chose to eat grasshoppers instead of hens. How many people could the grasshoppers feed,
compared to the one person that the hen fed?
The farmer needs to consume 3,000 calories per day. If he ate only soybeans instead of the hens or
grasshoppers, how many people would his soybean crop feed (see your response to #4)?
Draw a Biomass Pyramid using the data you have developed to this point. Why do most food chains not have a
fourth and/or fifth trophic level?
Should people generally eat at a lower trophic level? It seems by simple analysis, that the Earth could support
many more people if we all ate at a lower trophic level.
a) Outline 3 pros and 3 cons of such a practice
b) On average, cows produce 19kg of protein/acre/year and soy produces 200 kg of protein/acre/year.
Relate this data to the fact that people in less-developed countries usually eat at lower trophic levels
than those in developed countries.
Comment on the success of omnivores, such as coyotes, rats and humans and the fact that they can eat at many
trophic levels.
List the foods you have eaten over the last 5 days.
a) Identify what trophic level each food came from.
b) Estimate what percent of the mass of the food in your diet comes from the first and second trophic
levels
c) What percent of your diet comes from higher trophic levels, does this value mean anything to you?
Large predatory fist, which may be part of your diet at times usually exist at the third and fourth trophic level.
Explain why it may not be a good idea to eat these fish often, if at all.
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Chapter 4 Ecosystems: Components, Energy Flow and Matter Cycling
Have you thanked the insects today?
-Dependence on insects for pollination, control pest populations; we would perish without insects
4-1 The Nature of Ecology
What is ecology?
-Study of organism and how they interact with the nonliving environment
What are organisms?
-Any form of life- single celled; (eukaryotic/prokaryotic-no nucleus); or multicellular
Microbes: the invisible rulers of the Earth
-Thousands of species of bacteria, protozoa, fungi and yeasts; make the rest of life possible including
production of food; digestion, disease fighting, etc.
What are species?
-Group of organisms that resemble one another, behavior, chemistry and genetic makeup; members of
the same species actually breed with one another and produce live fertile offspring;
-Most species are insects and microorganisms; each year researches identify 10,000 new species;
estimates of up to 100 million species
What is a population?
-Consists of group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same
time; ___________ diversity- individuals vary slightly; populations change in size, age distribution,
density, and genetic composition
What are communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere?
-Communities-populations of different species in same place; ecosystems- communities + nonliving
environment; biosphere-all ecosystems
4-2 The Earth’s Life-Support Systems
What are the major parts of the Earth’s life support systems?
-Atmosphere- troposphere (lower level up to 17 km), stratosphere (17-48 km; contains O3);
hydrosphere- liquid/solid/gas phases of water; ___________- Earth’s crust and upper mantle
What sustains life on Earth?
-Depends on 3 factors- one way flow of energy from the sun; cycling of matter; gravity
How does the sun help sustain life on Earth?
-There are few organisms that can survive without sunlight, (exception-deep ocean organisms rely on
chemosynthesis from hydrothermal vents- converting hydrogen sulfide to sulfate)
What happens to solar energy reaching the Earth?
-Most is reflected away or absorbed by chemicals in atmosphere; most that reaches atmosphere is
visible, infrared and UV radiation; Radiation warms the troposphere/land, fuels water cycle, generate
wind, tiny fraction absorbed by plants
4-3 Ecosystem Concepts and Components
What are biomes and aquatic life systems?
-Biomes- large regions characterized by the same climate/life forms; Climate- long term patterns of
temperature and _____________; Aquatic life zones can be broken down into marine and freshwater
Do ecosystems have distinct boundaries?
-Rarely have boundaries, tend to merge with other ecosystems in a transitional area called an ecotone
What are the major components of ecosystems?
-Abiotic, (sunlight, currents, wind, soil, etc.) and biotic factors
What are the major nonliving components of ecosystems?
-Range of tolerance- each population in an ecosystem has variations of survival related to abiotic
factors; Limiting factor- precipitation in a desert would limit the range of certain species; in rivers
dissolved oxygen, amount of nutrients would be limiting factors
What are the major living components of ecosystems?
Producers- autotrophs via photosynthesis or chemosynthesis; consumers- heterotrophs (herbivores,
omnivores, carnivores, scavengers, detritivores- detritus feeders and decomposers)
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-Aerobic respiration- uses O2 converted to CO2 and water, Anaerobic respiration- break down glucose
to produce methane, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, hydrogen sulfide
What is biodiversity and why is it important?
Genetic diversity- variety of genetic makeup among individuals; species diversity- variety of species in a
given habitat; ecological diversity- variety of ecosystems; ______________diversity- energy flow and
matter cycling need for survival of all species
4-4 Connections: Food Webs and Energy Flow in Ecosystems
What are food chains and food webs?
-Food chain- sequence of energy from food passes from one organism to another, each link in a food
chain is called a trophic level (first level- producers, 2nd level herbivores…etc.), food chains move in
only one direction, energy is exchanged and heat is lost
-Food web- complex of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem is a realistic model of an ecosystem
because predators eat various prey
How can we represent the energy flow in an ecosystem?
-Ecological pyramids are a way of graphically representing energy values in trophic levels, drawbacks:
do not represent biomass (total mass of living material)
How can we represent biomass storage in an ecosystem?
-Pyramids of energy illustrate kilocalories per square meter/ per year, have large bases and progressively
get smaller at each trophic level
4-5 Primary Productivity of Ecosystems
How rapidly do producers in different ecosystems produce biomass?
-Gross primary productivity is the rate energy is captured by photosynthesizers during a set time, energy
that remains in plant tissue after cellular respiration is called net primary productivity
-Most abundant ecosystems in GPP are tropical rain forests and coral reefs/estuaries; least abundant:
tundras, deserts and the ______________
How does the world’s net rate of biomass production limit the populations of consumer species?
-The planet’s net primary productivity limits # of consumers (humans); though very productive, swamps
and estuaries cannot be eaten by humans; tropical rainforests cleared for crops would be nutrient poor,
most nutrients are in vegetation not soil
How much of the world’s net rate of biomass production do we use?
-Population growth has become a serious threat to the planet’s ability to support it occupants; humans
consume approximately 40% of NPP
4-6 Connections: Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
What are biogeochemical cycles?
-Bio. Cycles- matter moves from one organism to another and to the abiotic environment
How is water cycled in the biosphere?
-Through precipitation, evaporation from any body of water into clouds; runoff from rivers; transpiration
from plants losing water all cycle water molecules through
How are human activities affecting the water cycle?
-Construction of _______________; releasing of aerosols which absorb sunlight causing more clouds
and warming of the atmosphere- threatens water supplies for all organisms
How is carbon cycled in the biosphere?
-CO2 is moved from animals and converted by plants; plant and animal mortality- vast amounts of
carbon are stored in the form of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
-Large amounts of carbon is found in shells of marine organisms/limestone, as it weathers and erodes it
released carbon
How are human activities affecting the carbon cycle?
-Combustion of fossil fuels releases CO2 causing an imbalance in carbon cycle and climatic cycles
How is nitrogen cycled in the biosphere?
-Nitrogen fixation- conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia by bacteria; nitrification- conversion of
ammonia to nitrate by bacteria; ammonificaition- conversion of biological nitrogen into
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ammonia/ammonium form animal waste by decomposers; denitrification- reduction of nitrate to
gaseous nitrate by bacteria deep in the ground
How are human activities affecting the nitrogen cycle?
-First way: using too much nitrogen in fertilizer- eventually runs off into waterways causing fish kills
-Second: combustion of fossil fuels releases nitrogen that forms smog
How is phosphorus cycled in the biosphere?
-Cycled from land to sediments in the ocean and back to land, phosphorous is released into the soil by
the erosion of rocks then taken up by plants then through the food web to eventually decomposers
How are human activities affecting the phosphorus cycle?
-Phosphates are used in _____________, found in human diets and to sewage treatment plants where
they are not removed and pollute waterways; beginning to have shortages of phosphorous for fertilizer
How is sulfur cycled in the biosphere?
-Total amount of sulfur moved to and from the atmosphere is substantial; driven by bacteria and used by
plants, most is locked up in the Earth’s crust in sedimentary rocks
How are human activities affect the sulfur cycle?
-A large increase in sulfur oxides from power plants is evident in ice core samples over the past 150
years: combustion of fossil fuels- _______________
4-7 How do Ecologists Learn About Ecosystems
What is field research?
-Going into nature and observing, measuring ecosystems and what happens to them; Ecologists use
remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS’s) to analyze forest cover, water resources, air
pollution, coastal changes etc.
Effects of deforestation on nutrient cycling
-Cutting forests down increases water runoff, loss of minerals (six to eight times undisturbed forest),
over time forest do recover
What is laboratory research?
-Easier for ecologists to carry out controlled experiments but could be oversimplified and not resemble
true ecosystems
What is system analysis?
-Using mathematical models to simulate ecosystems that are too complex to project future
environmental conditions; only as good at the data and assumptions made by scientists
4-8 Ecosystem Services and Sustainability
What are ecosystem services?
-Food, air, water; all are reduced or degraded when ecosystems are damaged
What are two basic principles of ecosystem sustainability?
-Ecosystems are sustainable because they use renewable energy (sun); recycle chemical nutrients
Chapter 5 Evolution and Biodiversity: Origins, Niches, and Adaptation
Earth: the Just-Right Resilient Planet
Earth has just the right conditions for life, it has been enormously resilient and adaptive over 3.7 million
years of life
5-1 Origins of Life
How did life emerge on the Earth?
-Simple _____________ compounds might have reacted to produce building blocks for proteins,
carbohydrates, RNA and DNA molecules needed for life
How did chemical evolution take place?
-Primitive atmosphere had no O2, life evolved from the reactions of inorganic compounds with
lightning, heat from volcanoes, intense UV radiation, etc.
How do we know what organisms lived in the past?
-Fossils-give us physical evidence that organisms lived long ago and what their internal structure looked
life; record is incomplete, only found fossils representing 1% of all species that ever lived; also can look
at DNA of current organisms
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How did life first evolve?
-3.2 billion years ago: protocells-prokaryotes-underwent genetic change to evolve the process of
photosynthesis (cyanobacteria)- aerobic respiration in bacteria evolves- 1.2 billion years ago first
_______________ cells- 750 million years ago first plants- finally animals appeared ~600 mya
5-2 Evolution and Adaptation
What is evolution?
-Change in genetic makeup of a population over time (populations evolve, not individuals);
microevolution- small genetic changes; macroevolution- large scale changes leading to new species and
extinction of other species
How does microevolution work?
-Need genetic variability in a population that has arisen due to natural mutations; sometimes mutations
allow for better chances of survival in existing environment or changing environment;
What role does natural selection play in microevolution?
-Certain individuals have a better chance of survival and to reproduce due to genetically based traits; this
allows for heritable traits to be passed on and differential reproduction (more offspring than other
individuals)
What is artificial selection?
-Humans select certain traits and use ___________________ to enhance those traits; has led to
domestication of plants and animals (all dogs are the same species)
What is an example of microevolution by natural selection?
-Camouflage coloration of peppered moth in England during Industrial Revolution
What are three types of natural selection?
-Directional natural selection- cause allele (gene in molecular form) frequencies to shift to one end
population variety (it pays to be different)
-Stabilizing natural selection- eliminates individuals on both ends of genetic spectrum, (pays to be
average)
-________________ natural selection- environmental conditions favor individuals at both ends of
genetic spectrum and reduces ‘normal’ population
What is coevolution?
-Interaction between species; predator prey relationships leads to camouflage, poison, etc.
5-3 Ecological Niches and Adaptation
What is an ecological niche?
-Each organism has its own role within the structure and function of ecosystem; includes local habitat
What is the difference between a species’ fundamental niche and its realized niche?
-Potential niche is also referred to fundamental niche; realized niche is the actual resources used by the
organism
Is it better to be a generalist or a specialist species?
-Generalist- have broad niches; Specialist species have narrow niches (makes them more prone to
extinction); which is better? Depends on if environment is constant (rainforest- specialist have
advantages- few competitors); rapidly changing environment- _____________ will survive
What limits adaptation?
-A change in environmental conditions can lead to adaptation ONLY for traits that are present in
population; a population is still limited to its reproductive capacity (evolution takes a long time)
What are two common misconceptions about evolution?
-Survival of fittest does not means survival of strongest (fitness= reproductive success); there is no
grand plan or goal of perfection that exists in the evolution process
5-4 Speciation, Extinction, and Biodiversity
How do new species evolve?
-Geographic isolation then reproductive isolation leads to a ______________ and eventually a new
species appears
How do species become extinct?
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-Environment changes a species must evolve, move to a more favorable area or cease to exist
-The ultimate fate for all species, 99.9% of all species are extinct
-Background extinction- species disappear at a low rate; mass extinction catastrophic and widespread;
after mass extinctions, adaptive radiation takes place for 5 million years until diversity is completely
replaced
Cockroaches: Nature’s ultimate survivors
-Successful due to being generalists- eat almost anything, go without food form months, can evade
predators, high reproductive rates
How do species and extinction affect biodiversity?
-Biodiversity is affected by speciation and extinction- extinctions allow for new opportunities during
adaptation radiations; humans have caused extinction rate to increase 500 times the background rate,
species cannot evolve in such a short time period
The future of evolution
-Due to human activity, we will see a proliferation of _____________ species; an end to large
vertebrate; unless conservation increases
Chapter 6 Biogeography: Climate, Biomes and Terrestrial Biodiversity
Connections: Blowing the Wind
-Wind transport nutrients and allow life to flourish but wind also circulates pollution, there is no away!
6-1 Weather: A Brief Introduction
What is weather?
-Temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover, wind direction/speed in the
troposphere; entered in computer models, meteorologists attempt to predict future weather
What are warm fronts and cold fronts?
-Weather changes as air masses replaces or meets another; most dramatic weather occurs along a
_________ (boundary between 2 air masses); a warm front usually brings cloudy skies and rain; a
cold front brings wind and thunderstorms
What are highs and lows?
-High pressure system contains cool, dense air that leads to fair weather; low pressure leads to stormy
weather
What causes tornadoes and tropical cyclones?
-Weather extremes caused by intense low pressure systems that form over land and water (hurricanes
and typhoons-Pacific ocean)
6-2 Climate: A Brief Introduction
What is climate?
-Average ____________ and _______________ over long periods of time
How does global air circulation affect regional climate?
-Due to uneven heating of Earth’s surface, seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation; rotation of
the Earth; solar energy striking Earth; properties of air and water
How do ocean currents form, and how do they affect regional climates?
-Driven by wind and water density redistribute heat (Northern Europe much warmer than Northern
Canada due to the Gulf Stream)
What are upwellings?
-Due to wind and outgoing water, deep, cold, ___________ rich water replaces surface water which
support large populations
What is the El Nino-Southern Oscillation?
-Pacific Ocean normal upwellings are affected by a weakened prevailing western wind causing surface
water along the North and South American coasts to warm causing nutrient not to upwell towards the
surface
-ENSO can trigger extreme weather throughout the world
What is La Nina?
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-Usually follows and El Nino year with more Atlantic Hurricanes, colder winters in Canada and
northeast, wetter winters in the Pacific Northwest, torrential rains in Asia and more wildfires in Florida
How does the chemical makeup of the atmosphere lead to the greenhouse effect?
-Greenhouse gases- water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and cfc’s absorb and emit
infrared radiation which would usually escape into space and add more heat to the troposphere
How does the chemical makeup of the atmosphere create the ozone layer?
-In the stratosphere, O2 is converted into O3, ozone is in very low concentrations (12 ppm) which
prevents _______ of the sun’s harmful uv radiation from reaching the surface
How do topography and other features of the Earth’s surface create microclimates?
-Microclimates-topographic features that create local climatic conditions, i.e. mountains along coasts
cause drier conditions on _____________ side of range (rain shadow effect), cities also create
microclimates
6-3 Biomes: Climate and Life on Land
Why do different organisms live in different places?
-Earth has many different climates (based on temperature and precipitation); distinct terrestrial region
characterized by similar climate, soil, plants/animals is called a biome; affected by latitude and elevation
Why do plant sizes, shapes and survival strategies differ?
-Plants have certain traits that allow them to survive in very hot/cold/dry conditions; i.e. succulent plants
have no leaves, store water in tissue, take CO2 only at night to survive in the desert; broadleaf
evergreens allow for ample sunlight for photosynthesis and to radiate heat during hot weather; broadleaf
______________ plants survive by shedding leaves and becoming dormant for winter months;
coniferous evergreen plants keep needles all year which are designed to slow down heat loss during long
winters
6-4 Desert Biomes
What are the major types of deserts?
-Tropical deserts- high temperatures year round, little rainfall (Sahara); Temperate deserts- daytime
temperatures are high and low in winter, more precipitation than in tropical deserts (Mojave); Cold
deserts- winters are cold, summers are warm or hot (Gobi)
How do desert plants and animals survive?
-Plant life consists of perennial (live for 2 years) and annuals, cacti, yucca, Joshua tree and sagebrushes,
adapt by having few or no leaves
-Animals tend to be small with a variety of reptiles, rabbits, kangaroos and coyote- conserve water well
-Humans disrupt deserts by disturbing sand and soil surface causing erosion
6-5 Grassland, Tundra, and Chaparral Biomes
What are the major types of grasslands?
-Precipitation is ______ that prevent large stands of trees from growing, most are formed in the interior
of continents, occasional fires keep large numbers of shrubs and trees from growing; three typestropical, temperate and polar (tundra)
What are tropical grasslands and savannas?
-Savannas- low or seasonal rainfall determine seasons instead of temperature, occur in Africa, South
America, India and Australia
-Animals include many hoofed animals
What are temperate grasslands?
-Characterized by long grasses and grazing animals; much has been converted to agricultural purposes
(corn and wheat)
What are polar grasslands?
-Arctic tundra- long harsh winters and short summers; very little precipitation and direct sunlight; a
layer of ___________stays permanently frozen to a certain depth, the landscape is flat with shallow
lakes and bogs, found only in northern latitudes; damage to biome due to natural gas and oil exploration
What is alpine tundra?
-Top of high mountains; long harsh winters; lack permafrost
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What is chaparral?
-Hilly temperate environment (mountain slopes of southern CA); soil is not very fertile; have frequent
_________ clearing away most vegetation
6-6 Forest Biomes
What are the major types of forests?
What are tropical rain forests?
-Temp.’s warm throughout year; precipitation high (most comes from transpiration locally); soils are
nutrient poor due to many decomposers; plant/animal diversity highest- no single species is dominant;
niche based on 3 layers of forest
What are tropical deciduous forests?
-North of tropical rain forests, warm year round but most of their rainfall during a wet (monsoon)
season; have a lower canopy than trop. rain forests; contain deciduous trees and drought-tolerant evergreens
What are temperate deciduous forests?
-Characterized by hot summers and cold winters with less rainfall than temperate rainforests; organically
rich soil; over-farming, development threaten ecosystem
What are evergreen coniferous forests?
-Boreal forest (_______); receive little rainfall and the soil tends to be acidic and mineral poor;
evergreens are dominant
What are temperate rain forests?
-Pacific Northwest; receive lots of rainfall; winters are mild and summers are cool; large areas have been
removed due to logging
6-7 Mountain Biomes
Why are mountains ecologically important?
-Many freestanding mountains are islands of biodiversity surrounded by a sea of lower elevation
landscapes; mountains contain the majority of world’s forests, endemic species (found nowhere else on
Earth), glaciers help regulate climate, play a key role in ___________________
6-8 Lessons from geographic ecology
-Need more accurate studies of species distribution, changes in climate and how and where human
activities are affecting climate, biomes and species
Name
_
Finding
Q
Niche in
Q
new Environment
A species of insects has been accidentally introduced from Asia into the North American forest. The success of this
organism depends on its ability to find a suitable habitat, that is, one with the proper abiotic conditions for all of its life
stages. The larval stage is very sensitive to changes in temperature, humidity, and light conditions. Exposure to
situations outside the tolerance limits of this species results in a high mortality (death) rate. Data showing the influence
of the three physical variables on the larva are presented in Table 1. The data for each variable were obtained with the
other two variables were kept constant at optimum conditions.
Table 1
Temperature (C)
Mortality (%)
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
100
80
30
10
0
0
0
0
20
80
100
Relative Humidity
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mortality (%)
80
10
0
0
0
50
70
90
100
100
100
Light Intensity
(foot candles)
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Mortality (%)
-­
-­
0
0
10
15
20
20
90
95
100
100
Questions
1. On a separate sheet of graph paper, plot a graph that shows the effects of temperature and humidity on the
mortality rates of the introduced species. Use the format illustrated in Figure 1.
2. Mark on the graph the area that represents suitable conditions for the insect larvae to survive the combined
effect of these two environmental factors. (50% mortality or better will be suitable conditions.)
3. How much does the suitable area for the temperature factor decrease when the humidity factor is added.
4. Add to your graphs another to illustrate the effects of light on the mortality of the larvae. Compare the suitable
area for insect survival to the area in question 2.
5. Mark the most desirable area when all three factors»- temperature, light, and relative humidttv-« are
considered. State the temperature, relative humidity, and light ranges that are optimal for the larvae.
6. One spring morning while the larvae were feeding in the open, the temperature dropped to 18 C and a strong
wind lowered the relative humidity to 40%. The light intensity was 400 foot candles. Which factor had the
greatest influence on insect mortality?
7.
What other factors determine whether terrestrial organisms can find a niche in the environment.
8.
Suggest a habitat that might suit this insect. How could it react to intolerable temperatures, relative humidity
and light intensity?
Figure 1
25
100
2,000
24
90
1,800
80
1.800
e21
:1-::1I
..f"
:1 =1!
22
~ilO
f
1
30
eoo
17
20
.-00..
16
10
200
18
-_-_-r--__--.---r-......,r---+-......-­
1S.......-..--........
10
20
30 40 50· 60 70
MortIIIIty ,... (percent)
80
90
100
ot
Name _______________________
BIODIVERSITY - Using and interpreting the Shannon Index
The term biodiversity has meaning at a variety of levels – genetic, species, larger taxonomic groups, and
community or ecosystem. Biodiversity has been defined by the US Office of Technology Assessment as “the
variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.”
Estimates of the number of species worldwide vary tremendously. Already identified and named are
1.6 – 1.8 million species of plants and animals. But many are not yet identified or named – some estimates are
as high as 28 million unnamed species!! Biodiversity is declining worldwide – because of human activities,
rates of species extinctions are higher than at any other time in the history of Earth.
Diversity is an ecological measurement of species evenness and richness. In other words – it measures how
many different species are in an ecological system and how many of each species are represented. A common
measure of species diversity is the Shannon Diversity Index (also called the Shannon-Weaver or the ShannonWeiner index).
The index is: H' = -Sum of (pi * lnpi)
Where H' = Shannon Diversity Index
pi = ni/Ni = the proportion of the total # of individuals occurring in species
ni = number of individual species
Ni = The total number of all species
The most important source of error comes from failure to include all species from the community in a sample,
but this error decreases as the proportion of species represented in the sample increases. Values of the Shannon
index for real communities are often found to fall between 1.0 and 6.0.
Assignment:
Part A:
In this lab you will calculate the S-W Index for the following data.
Species
# of Organism
Whip mud worm
8
Mussels
20
Barnacles
15
White anemones
5
Dusky sea slug
2
Isopods
6
pi
Show your calculations and describe the diversity of this community.
lnpi
pilnpi
Part B: Compare the diversity of the rice field to the Costa Rican wetland, Quebrada Mula.
Group
Rice Field
When Completed:
Assess whether there are differences in species richness between the 2 different
quadrants and possible reasons why.
Quebrada
Mula
Nematodes
4
8
Annelids
2
21
Mollusks
4
34
Spiders
2
13
Insects
1
12
Larvae
11
40
Crustaceans
3
65
Amphibians
0
10
Reptiles
0
3
Mammals
Total
Individuals
Species
5
27
211
Rice Field
# of Organism
pi
lnpi
pilnpi
# of Organism
pi
lnpi
pilnpi
Nematodes
Annelids
Mollusks
Spiders
Insects
Larvae
Crustaceans
Quebrada Mula
Species
Nematodes
Annelids
Mollusks
Spiders
Insects
Larvae
Crustaceans
Amphibians
Reptiles
Mammals
Biodiversity: Comparing Diversity in Human-Managed Habitats
Purpose: Each student will assess the biodiversity of a specific outdoor location. This
lab will provide the abilities to analyze record and mathematically determine the
biodiversity in the environment. Each student will also be able to compare human
impact on biodiversity in areas that have different degrees of human activity.
Background: The tem biodiversity has meaning at a variety of levels-at the genetic level,
species level, at larger taxonomic group levels, and at the community or ecosystem level.
Biodiversity has been defined by the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment as “the variety
and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they
occur.”
Estimates of the number of species worldwide vary tremendously. Already identified
and named species include 1.6-1.8 million plants and animals. But many are not identified
or named-some estimates are as high as 28 million species!
Biodiversity is declining worldwide. Because of human activities, rates of species
extinctions are higher than at any time in previous history on Earth. Humans have
affected the biodiversity of natural systems to varying degrees. Some of the most
impacted are those around our houses and buildings. The purpose of this activity is to
compare human impact on biodiversity in areas that have different degrees of human
activity.
Materials: 10 meter long string, note cards, tape, pencil/pen
Procedure:
1. Draw of map of campus and note your assigned location on the map (can use
map websites)
2. Proceed to your assigned location and establish a 10 meter transect.
3. Count the number of species (identify by leaf shape, no need to learn specific
names) along the transect. Take one sample of each organism and tape it to
the card. Create a morphospecies name (relevant to its appearance) and write
this on the card. (Note: grass grows from one basic root system in clumps.
You will need a total count of ‘clumps’ throughout your transect. Do not
count every clump! Obtain the total number of grass species by making a
specific count over a smaller ‘area’, then multiplying this number by the total
area throughout your transect.)
4. Record the total number for each species you found (richness) and note this
on the appropriate card. Species that ‘crawl’ or ‘fly’ away from your transect
must still by recorded.
5. Clean up all materials and return to class.
6. Determine the species diversity index (Shannon-Weiner Index) of your data
by creating a data table.
7. Construct a bar graph depicting your species statistics.
8. On your map, label all other groups’ species diversity indices
9. With your group write up a lab report (see me for the format), with a Title,
Purpose, Procedure, Hypotheses and Conclusion (part of the conclusion will
be the questions response below.)
Biodiversity Conclusion Questions
Answer the following questions in complete sentences in a neat, spell-checked and proofread conclusion.
1. Was your species diversity index within the range of a ‘real’ community?
2. Explain how your answer to #1 relates to biodiversity? (i.e. is your area diverse?
Too many species? Too little?)
3. What type of human impact has influenced the area you examined?
4. What type of species dominated your area and why do you suppose this is the
case?
5. What about the other locations, why would there indexes be higher/lower?
6. Give a brief definition, in your own words, of “biodiversity.”
7. List the five different kinds of diversity.
8. What is GIS?
9. Of the species on Earth that have been identified, what percentage are insects,
invertebrates, plants, single-celled organisms, and vertebrates?
10. What parts of the Earth have the greatest biodiversity?
11. What is the relationship between diversity and latitude?
12. How have humans affected biodiversity on the planet? Be specific. Address the
effects of human population growth.
13. Define: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, pollution, introduced species,
and overharvesting. How does each of these lead to loss of biodiversity?
14. Why should we protect biodiversity?
15. List the seven major organizations that protect biodiversity. Where are they
based?
16. List six different international approaches to protecting biodiversity and provide
an example for each.
17. What is CITES? When was it instituted? What is its purpose?
18. What is a “debt-for-nature swap”?
19. What are five different national conservation programs? Give one example of
each.
20. In your own words, answer the following question:
If you could only communicate one message about biodiversity, what would that be?
Biogeochemicalcyclelos
Cut ONLY on the solid black lines. Match terms with definitions. Practice before gluing down. Must end with "END-YEAH!" or you made a mistake
START HERE
Big players in the carbon
cycle that convert CO2 into
simple carbohydrates such
as glucose
Ammonification
Nitrogen (N2)
Rock forming process that
stores C in for millions of
years
Transpiration
Amount of water vapor in a
certain mass of air,
Hydrologic Cycle expresses as a % of max.
amount it can hold at given
temperature
Removing nitrogen rich topsoil in
agriculture, runoff into
waterways, nitric oxide in
atmosphere from burning fuel
Temperature at which
condensation occurs
Leaching
Denitrification
Downward flow of water through the
soil to groundwater storage areas
called aquifers
Burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation
Nitrogen Fixation
Mining P rocks for use in
fertilizer; excess runoff of animal
and farm waste causing
explosive growth of aquatic
algae
Producers
Bird excrement that is vital to the
phosphorous cycle
Sedimentation
Collects, purifies and distributes
the earth’s fixed supply of water
Precipitation
END, YOU KNOW YOUR
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES!!
Human activities on
carbon cycle
Process in which various
chemicals in upper layers of soil
are dissolved and carried to
lower layers eventually to
groundwater
Rocks and ocean Conversion of water into
sediments
water vapor
Relative Humidity
Nutrient organic molecules such
as glucose combine with oxygen
to produce CO2, H2O and
energy
Rain, sleet, hail and snow,
Absolute Humidity
oh my (almost there!!)
Humans activities
affecting the water
cycle
Ammonia in soil is converted by
aerobic bacteria to nitrite ions
(toxic) and nitrate ions (plants
love it)
Phosphorous typically found as
Human activities on
phosphate salts and ions in these
Nitrogen cycle
items
Dew Point
Process in which certain
organisms extract inorganic
molecules to organic molecules
without sunlight
CO2 reacts with ocean water to form
calcium carbonate and is used to
Aerobic Respiration
build shells and skeletons in this
group
Nitrification
Sulfur dioxide reacts with
oxygen to produce sulfuric
acid (H2SO4)
Vast armies of decomposer
bacteria convert nitrogen
Marine organisms rich waste products into
NH3 and water soluble
salts
Anaerobic
respiration
Plant roots absorb
inorganic ammonia and
related ions to make DNA,
amino acids and proteins
Evaporation
High poisonous gas with a
rotten-egg smell released
from volcanoes an swamp
organic matter
Photosynthesis
Guano
Specialized bacteria
convert N2 to ammonia
that is used by plants
mainly by cyanobacteria
and Rhizobium
Withdrawing large
quantities of water;
increasing runoff due to
deforestation; adding too
many nutrients
Evaporation from leaves of water
Human activities
extracted from soil, roots and
affecting sulfur cycle
transported throughout the plant
Chemosynthesis
Percolation
Anaerobic bacteria in
waterlogged soil or in the bottom
sediments ammonia back into
nitrite/nitrate then back to N2
Process that needs radiant
energy to combine CO2 and
water to produce O2 and
glucose
Human activities
Most abundant gas in the
affecting
atmosphere
phosphorous cycle
Hydrogen Sulfide
Acid Deposition
Condensation
Assimilation
Conversion of water vapor into
droplets of liquid water
Cellular respiration in which
decomposers get energy through the
breakdown of glucose in the absence
of oxygen
Amount of water vapor found in a
certain mass of air expressed in
grams of water/kg of air
Burning of coal and oil and smelting
of copper, lead and zinc