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Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 1 How Product Type and Stereotypes Affect Consumer Response to Gay and Lesbian Imagery ABSTRACT Gay and lesbian consumers are increasingly recognized as a lucrative target market. Advertisements more frequently incorporate images of people who are gay and lesbian; however, more research is needed to understand mainstream (heterosexual) consumer response to these ads. Three studies were conducted to explore how sexual orientation, product type, and modelproduct fit influence consumer reactions to ads with gay and lesbian imagery. Findings suggest product type moderates the effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad and word-ofmouth and that positive evaluations of an ad may occur when gay and lesbian imagery “fits” within a consumers’ existing schemas. This work offers implications for advertisers and brand managers. INTRODUCTION Gay and lesbian consumers are increasingly recognized as a lucrative and important target market by brands. In fact, the combined buying power of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) U.S. adults was estimated to be $884 billion in 2014 (Witeck Communications, 2015). Further, consumer research indicates 71% GLBT adults are more likely to support a brand that features equality-themed advertisements (Poggi, 2015). Thus, it is not surprising that brands including Coke, Tiffany and Co., Hallmark, Honey Maid, and JCPenny have all incorporated gay and lesbian couples or families in recent advertisements featured in mainstream (i.e. heterosexual target audience) media. How do consumers react to such ads? Although these ads received some negative feedback from consumers – the latter two brands Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 2 responded with messages indicating their continued commitment to representing more diverse families in their advertising (ABC News, 2014; Cullers, 2012). Further, positive consumer feedback well outnumbered the criticisms for some of the ads. While still relatively minimal, depictions of gay and lesbian individuals, couples, and families appear more frequently in mainstream advertising and media. The widespread popularity of television shows such as Modern Family (featuring a married gay couple) and Ellen (a talk show hosted by “out” lesbian Ellen Degeneres) are just two examples of this shift in the media. Significant changes in public policy such as the 2015 supreme court decision stating marriage is a fundamental right guaranteed to same-sex couples (Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015) and the 2010 repeal of “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” indicate that public sentiment toward individuals who identify as gay or lesbian is changing. According to a 2012 Gallup public opinion poll, more than 50% of American adults consider gay or lesbian relations morally acceptable – a proportion that has grown consistently from 38% in 2002 (Saad, 2012). Despite these changes, the majority of companies try to walk a thin line between appealing to both gays and lesbians and mainstream consumers without alienating one or the other (particularly the latter as it is much larger). Brands may do this by limiting their depictions of gays and lesbians to ads placed in niche channels such as GLBT-targeted magazines like OUT and The Advocate. Another tactic advertisers use is implicit rather than explicit gay and lesbian imagery because while most in this sub-group can identify subtle cues, mainstream consumers often do not and therefore are not likely to be offended. Previous empirical research on this topic has supported the notion that advertisers should use implicit rather than explicit gay and lesbian imagery (Bhat, Leigh and Wardlow, 1998; Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2004; Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2005; Oakenfull, McCarthy and Greenlee, 2008). However, recent positive consumer Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 3 response to advertisements featuring gay and lesbian imagery indicates such implicit efforts may no longer be necessary as positive reaction is increasing. Therefore, marketers and advertisers must examine the question, “How do mainstream consumers react to explicit gay and lesbian imagery?” In addition, marketers must determine what could influence consumer reactions to such ads. One such factor could be the type of product paired with explicit gay and lesbian imagery. Perhaps a product that is congruent with stereotypes about gays or lesbians is better received among mainstream consumers than a product that is perceived as incongruent. The purpose of the current study is to examine mainstream consumer response to ads featuring gays and lesbians in ads for products that are less or more consistent with relevant stereotypes. This research is examined in three studies. Study 1 examines gay and lesbian couples and product type on consumers’ attitude toward the ad and intention to spread positive word-of-mouth (WOM). Study 2 examines gay and lesbian families and product type to replicate findings, and considers model-product fit as a mediator to the interplay of sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Study 3 seeks to replicate findings from Study 1 and Study 2 using a different set of products. These findings have the potential to help advertisers and brand managers identify how best to target both GLBT and heterosexual consumers effectively through strategically pairing certain product types with diverse depictions of gays and lesbians. LITERATURE REVIEW Gender and sexuality has long been examined in advertising research (e.g. Bhat et al, 1998; Ford and LaTour, 1993; Oakenfull, McCarthy and Greenlee, 2008; Reichert, LaTour, and Ford, 2011). Congruity theory provides one framework for understanding how individuals respond to depictions of gender in advertising that are not consistent with their existing schemas. Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 4 Congruity theory suggests consumers evaluate features of an ad against their personal schema and make congruence judgments about how well the two match (Johnson and Grier, 2011; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989). Most prior research indicates consumers have less favorable reactions to ads that feature imagery inconsistent with expectations (e.g. Johnson and Grier 2011). Thus, images that are incongruent with existing schema – such as ads featuring gay or lesbian couples – may lead to more negative outcomes than those with more expected depictions of heterosexual couples. Indeed, scholars have begun to examine how heterosexual consumers respond to depictions of gays and lesbians in advertising. Generally, among heterosexual consumers, research indicates ads featuring same-gender couples tend to elicit more negative attitudes and emotions compared to traditional images (Angelini and Bradley, 2010; Bhat et al., 1998; Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2005; Oakenfull et al., 2008). However, important nuances exist that add context and clarity to these findings. Bhat and colleagues (1998) found that attitude toward an ad depicting a gay couple was moderated by participants’ a priori prejudices about gay men. Specifically, those with negative attitudes toward being gay had stronger negative emotions toward the ad imagery than those who did not have prejudiced attitudes. These findings support the notion that the strength of one’s in-group affiliation plays a critical role in how consumers process ads that feature members of an out-group. Other studies have considered how heterosexual consumers’ respond to ads that vary the degree to which the imagery presented was overtly gay (e.g., a same-sex couple in a romantic setting) or used implicit symbols (e.g., rainbows, pink triangles, and other unique iconography). Not surprisingly, heterosexual consumers tend to have more positive attitudes toward ads with implicit rather than explicit gay or lesbian imagery (Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2005). Consumers also react to stereotypes when responding to or evaluating an ad. A stereotype Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 5 is defined as “one group’s generalized and widely accepted beliefs about the personal attributes of members of another group” (Sheehan 2012, p.75). The crux of a stereotype is that every person who belongs to the group is a generic exemplar of a type or category rather than a unique individual. Stereotypes are developed from social influence, lived experience, and the media, and typically lead to people categorizing the world into groups (Fiske, 2000). Therefore stereotypes are associated with normative expectations (Fiske, 2000). Stereotype activation refers to increased accessibility of cognitive associations for a particular social group. Research indicates that both conscious and unconscious exposure to a member of a stereotyped social group (e.g., by an ad) can result in the automatic activation of stereotype characteristics (Blair and Banaji 1996; Kawak-ami, Dion, and Dovido 1998). Of particular import to the current study is that the stereotypes many consumers are likely to hold about romantic couples or families are that they are comprised of a heterosexual man and woman. Accordingly, consumers may react negatively when ads portray couples or families as gay or lesbian. A great deal of research has focused on gender-role stereotypes in advertising, but the stereotypes associated with sexual orientation and how they impact consumer response to ads is lacking. Stereotypes are considered a heuristic that facilitates quicker cognitive processing. As a result, it is widely documented that advertisers use stereotypical imagery because it is an effective way to quickly communicate an idea or sentiment (Sheehan, 2013). Gender-role stereotypes are one pervasive stereotype. These stereotypes focus on and contrast personality traits, predispositions, social orientations, and behavioral tendencies of the two sexes. This may manifest in ads that rely on stereotypes related to gender-related products. For example, it is more common to see women featured in cosmetics ads and men featured in ads for hunting or home improvement products. In addition, prior research has demonstrated that consumers tend to Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 6 prefer products when they are depicted with imagery consistent with their schema or stereotype (Lunch and Schuler 1994). For example, Bower and Landreth (2001) found highly attractive models are more effective for beauty-enhancing products compared to problem-solving products. What role does the product being paired with gay or lesbian imagery play in determining consumer response? Perhaps a product type consistent with consumer stereotypes about gays and lesbians would strengthen positive consumer reactions. It is well established that people have stereotypes of gays and lesbians (e.g., Kite and Deaux, 1987). Current research suggests certain stereotypes persist despite the shifting social acceptance of those who identify as gay or lesbian (Blashill and Powlishta, 2009). Generally, these stereotypes relate to gay men as more feminine and less masculine than heterosexual men; conversely, lesbian women are often cast as more masculine and less feminine than heterosexual women (Blashill and Powlishta, 2009; Kite and Deaux, 1987). For example, a gay man may be stereotyped as more savvy about personal hygiene or fashion (traditionally feminine interests) than a heterosexual man, whereas a lesbian woman is stereotyped as less interested in traditional feminine interests (Kite and Deaux, 1987). However, it is important to note that lesbians are often portrayed as highly sexualized in mainstream media, which influences perceptions of their femininity as well. Given the stereotypes consumers have about gays and lesbians, it may be that pairing images of overtly gay men and lesbian women with products framed to match these stereotypes will lead to greater perceived congruity and positive evaluations of the ad. Hypotheses and Dependent Variables We examine attitude toward the ad and WOM as outcomes of advertising effectiveness for ads featuring gay and lesbian couples based on product type. WOM is of particular interest because recent ads featuring gays and lesbians in mainstream media have received notable Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 7 responsiveness from consumers in the form of traditional WOM and social media. We expect an interaction between sexual orientation and product type on both of these advertising outcomes. Specifically, we expect attitude toward the ad will be more favorable and WOM will be stronger when gay and lesbian imagery are paired with products more consistent with gay and lesbian stereotypes. More formally, we forward the following hypotheses: H1) Attitude toward the ad will be more favorable for ads that feature gay (lesbian) imagery paired with a gay stereotype-consistent (lesbian stereotype-consistent) product versus a stereotype-inconsistent product. H2) WOM will be stronger for ads that feature gay (lesbian) imagery paired with a gay stereotype-consistent (lesbian stereotype-consistent) product versus a stereotypeinconsistent product. STUDY 1 METHODS Pretest The purpose of the pretest was to identify products that are most consistent with stereotypes of gays and lesbians. An online software program was used to administer the survey. The sample consisted of 41 members of a consumer panel, with an average age of 36 and 58% female. All participants lived in the United States. Consistent with prior work, real brands were used for purposes of ecological validity (e.g. Fleck, Korchia and LeRoy, 2012); product choices included Calvin Klein jeans, Cole Haan dress shoes, a Craftsman toolset, and Clorox kitchen cleaner. To ensure results were attributed to stereotypes of gays and lesbians, and not stereotypes of heterosexual men and women, Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research participants were also asked to indicate how consistent each product is with stereotypes of gays, lesbians, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women. Both the list of products and order of the questions asking participants to rate each product in relation to stereotypes about gays, lesbians, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women were randomized. After providing consent to participate in the study participants were asked to “ Please indicate how consistent each product is with stereotypes of ________________” The scale was a 7-point Likert scale anchored by “Not at all consistent” to “Very much consistent.” Gay-Consistent Stereotype Analysis A comparison of means revealed Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about gays (M = 5.00, t = 19.56, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the Calvin Klein jeans were significantly more consistent with stereotypes about gays compared to the Cole Haan shoes (M = 4.40, p <. 05); Craftsman tools (M = 3.91, p < .001), and Clorox Cleaner (M = 3.63, p < .001). In addition, comparison of means revealed the Craftsman tools as the product most consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual men (M = 5.93, t = 27.04, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test confirmed the Craftman toolset was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual men compared to the Calvin Klein jeans (M = 4.08, p <. 001), Cole Haan dress shoes (M = 4.02, p <. 001), and the Clorox cleaner (M = 3.51, p <.001). Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between perceptions of Calvin Klein jeans associated with gays (M=5.10) and heterosexual men (M = 4.08, p <.001), and between perceptions of the Craftsman toolset for stereotypes associated with heterosexual men (M = 5.93) and gay men (M = 3.91, p < .001). 8 Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 9 In sum, results revealed Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about gays. Lesbian-Consistent Stereotype Analysis A comparison of means revealed the Clorox cleaner as the product most consistent with stereotypes about lesbians (M = 5.00, t=19.56, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the Clorox cleaner was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians compared to the Calvin Klein jeans (M = 3.65, p < .001), (Cole Haan shoes (M = 3.75, p <. 001) and Craftsman tools (M = 4.90, p < .001). A comparison of means revealed the Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual women (M = 5.15, t = 23.14, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test confirmed the Calvin Klein jeans were significantly more consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual women compared to the Cole Haan dress shoes (M = 4.07, p <. 001), Craftsman toolset (M = 3.39, p <. 001), and the Clorox cleaner (M = 3.94, p <.001). Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between perceptions of the Clorox cleaner associated with lesbians (M=5.00) and heterosexual women (M = 3.94, p <.001), and between perceptions of Calvin Klein jeans for stereotypes associated with heterosexual women (M = 5.15) and lesbians (M = 3.65, p < .001). Accordingly, these results revealed Clorox cleaner as the product most consistent with stereotypes about lesbians. In sum, findings from the pretest suggest Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with gays and Clorox cleaner the product most consistent for lesbians. Main Study Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 10 The objective of Study 1 was to assess the interplay of sexual orientation and product type on advertising effectiveness. A 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) between-subjects experimental design was used. Fictitious ads were created and served as the stimuli for this study (see Appendix 1A). Sexual orientation was manipulated through ad imagery. Based on pretest results, Calvin Klein jeans was used as the product more consistent with stereotypes about gays and Clorox kitchen cleaner was used as the product more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians. An online software program was used to administer the survey. The sample consisted of 121 members of a consumer research panel, with the average age being 42. All of the participants lived in the US and 58% of the sample was female. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. After being exposed to the advertising stimuli, participants responded to the dependent measures and manipulation checks, which are discussed in the results section. Participants were also asked to disclose their gender, provide demographic information, their sexual orientation, and answer questions pertaining to their beliefs about sexual orientation. These variables had no effect on our measures and are not discussed further. Measures Attitude toward ad was assessed using four items on a 7-point semantic differential scale: bad/good, unfavorable/favorable, dislike/like and negative/positive (α=.94) (Um, 2014). WOM was measured using three items on a 7-point Likert-scale: “I would recommend this brand,” “I would say positive things about this brand,” “I would suggest this brand to someone who asks my advice” (α = .92) (Vázquez-Casielles, Suárez-Álvarez and del Río-Lanza, 2013). The product type manipulation was assessed using the following two items: “The product depicted in the ad is Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 11 consistent with stereotypes of gay men,” and “The product depicted in the ad is consistent with stereotypes of lesbian women,” anchored by strongly disagree to strongly agree on a 7-point Likert scale. STUDY 1 RESULTS Manipulation Checks Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking “What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 264.00 (p<.0001). Each cell was examined to determine how many participants accurately answered sexual orientation manipulation check. For those exposed to the gay condition, 100% of respondents correctly indicate that they viewed a gay couple and for those exposed to the lesbian condition, 100% of respondents correctly indicated they viewed a lesbian couple. These results indicate the sexual orientation manipulation was successful. To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted for both the gay and lesbian checks. For the gay product stereotype check there is a significant main effect of product type (F[3,117]=15.5, p<.001), while no other effect is significant. Participants who viewed the Calvin Klein jeans rated the product as more consistent with stereotypes of gays (M=3.87) compared to those who were exposed to the Clorox cleaner (M=2.32). In addition, for the lesbian product stereotype check there is a significant main effect of product type (F[3, 117 ]=14.7, p<.001), while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw the Clorox cleaner rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbians (M=3.63) compared to those who saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=2.24). Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 12 Test of Hypotheses To assess H1, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward the ad as the dependent variable. Results reveal a significant interaction of sexual orientation and product type on participant’s attitude toward the ad (F[3,117]=9.17, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had a more favorable attitude toward the ad when they saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=5.63) compared to those who saw the Clorox cleaner (M=4.90, F[1,117]=3.76, p<.05). In addition, as depicted in Figure 1a, participants in the lesbian condition had a more favorable attitude toward the ad when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=5.84), compared to those who saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.87, F[1,117]=5.44, p<.05). Thus, H1 is supported. INSERT FIGURE 1A ABOUT HERE To assess H2, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction of sexual orientation and product type on WOM, (F[3,117]=7.40, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had higher WOM when they saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.80) than when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=4.30, F[1,117]=.196, p<.10). In addition, as depicted in Figure 1b, participants in the lesbian condition had higher WOM when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=5.45) compared to the Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.66, F[1,117]=10.84, p<.05). Accordingly, H2 is supported. INSERT FIGURE 1B ABOUT HERE Study 1 Discussion A contribution of this research is to question whether mainstream consumer response to ads featuring people who are unambiguously gay and lesbian vary depending on product type. Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 13 Study 1 results suggest that product type does impact consumer reactions to ads featuring gays and lesbians in the form of consumer attitude toward the ad and intention to spread positive WOM. Study 1 demonstrates primarily positive outcomes when the product featured in the ad is perceived as consistent with the stereotype of the sexual orientation depicted in the ad. Additionally, the positive WOM findings may indicate consumers are supportive of brands that feature people with more diverse sexual orientation in their ads. This is consistent with the positive feedback Honey Maid received after including a family comprised of two gay fathers with their infant son; many consumers shared positive feedback about the brand via social media as an indicator of support for the company. Interestingly, the contrast effects demonstrate that the lesbian-product congruent condition drove the WOM results more so than the gay-congruent product condition. Perhaps consumers are used to seeing gay imagery and appreciate and applaud ads using lesbian imagery. Findings from the current study suggest it is the fit between the sexual orientation of the imagery depicted in the ad and the product featured in the ad that facilitate outcomes. However, model-product fit was not measured in the current study. It is expected model-product fit could serve as the underlying mechanism to explain the interplay of sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Study 2 examines this conjecture. In addition, Study 1 featured gay and lesbian couples, which are depicted more frequently in mainstream media compared to gay and lesbian families. After searching articles published in several top advertising and marketing journals in the past 10 years, we were unable to find existing empirical research on how mainstream consumers respond to ads with gay and lesbian families (i.e., those that include same gender parents and at least one child). This is important as brands are increasingly depicting gay and lesbian families in their ads. Therefore, in study 2 we Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 14 sought to examine how mainstream consumers’ evaluated ads that featured gay and lesbian families. STUDY 2 The purpose of Study 2 was twofold: first, we wanted to establish ecological validity by replicating Study 1 findings using ads that feature gay and lesbian families instead of a couple. Second, we wanted to explore the potential mediating role that model-product fit has on understanding the interplay between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Hypotheses Development Model-product fit, relatedness, or congruence (hereafter referred to as “model-product fit”) is one of the most widely accepted constructs used to measure effectiveness of endorsers. Although no uniform definition of fit or match is yet provided, the literature consistently attests that a good match-up between a person or model and a product is more effective for eliciting positive consumer responses to advertising compared to a bad fit between them (e.g. Kamins, 1990; Kamins and Gupta, 1994). The “match-up hypothesis” (e.g., Kamins, 1990), suggests that endorsers are more effective when there is a “fit” between the endorser and the endorsed product. The origin of the match-up hypothesis lies in advertising research that has examined the varying impact different type of endorsers, often celebrities, have on the endorsed product or brand. It’s been long established that effectiveness of endorsers varies by product (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). For example, a study by Kanungo and Pang (1973) paired female and male models (noncelebrities) with different product types and found that the effect of the models varied depending on the product with which the models were paired. These findings were explained in the “fittingness” or “belongingness” of the model for the product. Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 15 Early studies on the match-up hypothesis examined this supposition in the context of physical attractiveness and found attractive celebrities to be more persuasive when promoting products related to physical attractiveness (Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins, 1990). More recent studies have shown perceived congruence between person-image and product-image as an important match-up feature (Till and Busler, 2000). Prior research has demonstrated that the more relevant, or congruent the person-product pair is perceived to be, the greater the positive response to the advertisement (Batra and Homer, 2004; Erdogan and Baker, 2000; Kamins, 1990; Misra and Beatty, 1990; Till and Busler, 2000). These results provide empirical support for the central premise of this theoretical approach that a fit between a person and the product is instrumental in understanding consumer response to ads. Our work uses this theoretical underpinning as the foundation to examine if model-product fit explains the relationship between sexual orientation and product type on consumers’ attitude toward the ad. We expect perceptions of model-product fit to mediate the relationship between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Specifically, we predict product type moderates the direct effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad, and the indirect effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad. More formally, we posit the following: H3) Model-product fit will mediate the interplay between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. METHODS Consistent with Study 1, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay vs. lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) between-subjects design was used. The procedure was identical to that used for Study 1, except the ad featured families instead of couples (see Appendix 1B). The measures for attitude toward the ad and WOM were identical to Study 1. Perceptions of model- Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 16 product fit were measured using four items on a 7-point Likert scale anchored by strongly disagree/strongly agree: “The couple in this ad are suited to the featured product,” “I didn’t expect to see such a couple for this product” (R), “Associating this couple with this product seems natural,” and “choosing this couple for this product is appropriate” (Johnson and Grier, 2011). Sample and Procedures The sample consisted of 135 members of a consumer research panel; 54% female. The average age was 38 and all participants lived in the US. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions. The procedures were identical to Study 1. Consistent with Study 1, participants were also asked to provide demographic information, their sexual orientation, and information pertaining to their beliefs about sexual orientation; since these variables had no effect on our measures, we do not discuss them further. STUDY 2 RESULTS Manipulation Checks Findings Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking “What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 243.74 (p<.0001). For those exposed to the gay condition, 100 percent of respondents correctly indicate that they viewed a gay couple. For those exposed to the lesbian condition, 97.3% of respondents correctly indicated. These results indicate that both manipulations work as intended. To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted for both the gay and lesbian check measure. For the gay product stereotype check there was a Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 17 significant main effect (F[3,131]=14.172, p<.05), while no other effect is significant. Participants who viewed the Calvin Klein jeans rated the product as more consistent with stereotypes of gays (M=3.91) than those who were exposed to the Clorox cleaner (M=2.52). For the lesbian product stereotype check, there was a significant main effect of product type (F[3 131]=15.178, p<.001), while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw the Clorox cleaner rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbian women (M=3.56) than those who saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=2.32). Replication of Study 1 Findings Although not formally hypothesized, to assess ecological validity, H1 and H2 were assessed. To examine attitude toward the ad, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward the ad as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on ad attitude, (F[3,131]=20.49, p<.001). Participants in the gay condition had a more favorable attitude when exposed to Calvin Klein jeans (M=5.22) compared to the Clorox cleaner (M=3.56, F[1,131]=18.63, p<.001). In addition, those in lesbian condition had a more favorable attitude toward the ad for Clorox cleaner (M=4.81) compared to Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.27, F[1,131]=28.94, p<.05). To assess WOM, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on WOM (F[3,131]=4.04, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had a stronger WOM with the Calvin Klein jeans (M=5.31) compared to the Clorox cleaner (M=4.91, F[1,131]=6.02, p<.10), while Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 18 participants in lesbian condition had a stronger WOM for the Clorox cleaner (M=5.02, SD=0.34) compared to Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.12, F[1,131]=4.02, p<.05). In sum, together this analyses demonstrate these findings replicate Study 1 findings. Test of Hypothesis As Figure 2 depicts, we propose a case of moderated mediation (Muller, Judd and Yzerbyt, 2005), in which product type moderates the indirect effect sexual orientation on attitude toward ad through model-product fit. Specifically, we predict product type moderates the direct effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad, and the indirect effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad. To assess the moderated mediation proposed in H3 we analyzed the conditions using an SPSS macro designed by Preacher, Rucker and Hayes (2007; model 8), which incorporates a bootstrapping procedure that generates a sample size of 5,000 to assess the regression models necessary for mediation. INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE The first mediator model examined the effects of product type, sexual orientation, and their interaction on model-product fit was predicted by product type. The significant interaction (𝛽=3.18, SE=.45; 95% CI: -2.28, -4.08) suggests that the direct effect of sexual orientation, through model-product fit varies based on product type. The second mediator model examined product type, sexual orientation, model-product fit, and the product type * sexual orientation interactions as predictors of attitude toward the ad. This analysis revealed a significant effect of model-product fit on attitude toward the ad (𝛽=.49, SE=.09; 95% CI: .30, .68), and a significant interaction (𝛽=2.14, SE=.58; 95% CI: -.99, -3.29,). As expected, we find that model-product fit depends on product type. Using the recommended bootstrapping technique for testing Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 19 conditional indirect effects, the results confirm success of moderated mediation (effect: -.1.58, SE .39, CI: -2.5, -.93). . Study 2 Discussion A contribution of this research is to question whether mainstream consumer response to ads featuring models who are unambiguously gay and lesbian are explained by model-product fit. Findings from this study reveal the interaction between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad is facilitated through perceptions of model-product fit. These findings are consistent with prior work that has examined a fit between the person featured in the ad and the product. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first to examine the theoretical underpinnings in the context of sexual orientation. STUDY 3 Study 1 and Study 2 demonstrate the importance of congruity between the person and product featured in ads. However, Studies 1 and 2 are limited by focusing on the same set of products. Therefore, to provide further support for ecological validity it is necessary to examine the posited predictions using a new set of products. In addition, this final study also helps to shed light on how branding might influence product stereotypes that are more consistent with stereotypes about gays and lesbians. The purpose of Study 3 is to replicate findings from Studies 1 and 2 using a new set of products. The pretest is discussed first, followed by a description of the main study, and results. STUDY 3 METHODS Pretest The purpose of the pretest was to identify new products that are most consistent with stereotypes of gays and lesbians. An online software program was used to administer the survey. Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 20 The sample consisted of 40 members of a consumer panel, with an average age of 38 and 54% female. All participants lived in the United States. Consistent with Studies 1 and 2, real brands were used for purposes of ecological validity; product choices included Levi’s jeans, Dove body wash, Tide laundry detergent and Bosche windshield wiper blades. The procedures and measure of stereotype consistency were identical to those in the first pretest. Gay-Consistent Stereotype Analysis A comparison of means revealed Dove body wash as the product most consistent with stereotypes about gays (M = 5.10, t = 31.23, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the Dove body was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about gays compared to Levi’s jeans (M = 4.15, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 4.65, p < .05), and Bosch windshield wipers (M = 4.20, p < .001). In addition comparison of means revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual men (M = 5.70, t = 37.32, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test confirmed Levi’s jeans was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual men compared to Dove body wash (M = 3.38, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 3.90, p <. 001), and the Bosch windshield wipers (M = 5.10, p <. 05). Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between perceptions of Dove body wash associated with gays (M=5.10) and heterosexual men (M = 3.38, p <.001), and between perceptions of Levi’s jeans for stereotypes associated with heterosexual men (M = 5.70) and gay men (M = 4.15, p < .001). In sum, results revealed Dove body wash as the product most consistent with stereotypes about gays. Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 21 Lesbian-Consistent Stereotype Analysis A comparison of means revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about lesbians (M = 5.10, t=25.26, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed Levi’s jeans was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians compared to Dove body wash (M = 3.95, p < .001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 4.18, p <. 001) and Bosch windshield wipers (M = 4.75, p < .05). A comparison of means revealed the Dove body wash as the product most consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual women (M = 6.00, t = 43.27, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test confirmed the Dove body wash was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual women compared to the Levi’s jeans (M = 3.00, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 5.60, p <. 05), and the Bosch windshield wipers (M = 4.03, p <.001). Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between perceptions of Levi’s jeans associated with lesbian women (M=5.10) and heterosexual women (M = 3.00, p < .001), and between perceptions of Dove body wash for stereotypes associated with heterosexual women (M = 6.00) and lesbian women (M = 3.95, p < .001). Accordingly, results revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes about lesbians. In sum, the pretest findings suggest that Dove body wash is the product most consistent with stereotypes associated with gays, and Levi’s jeans the product most associated with stereotypes with lesbians. Main Study Sample and Procedures Consistent with Study 1 and Study 2, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay vs. lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) between-subjects design was used. The Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 22 procedure was identical to that used for Study1 and Study 2, except the ads featured the new branded products (Levi’s jeans and Dove body wash) identified in the pretest (see Appendix 1C). The measures for attitude toward the ad, WOM, and model fit were identical to Study 2. Consistent with Study 1 and Study 2, participants were also asked to provide demographic information, their sexual orientation, and information pertaining to their beliefs about sexual orientation; since these variables had no effect on our measures, we do not discuss them further. The sample consisted of 106 members of a consumer research panel; 54% female and 46% male. The average age was 40 and all participants lived in the US. STUDY 3 RESULTS Manipulation Checks Findings Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking “What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 106.00 (p<.0001). For those exposed to the gay condition, 100 percent of respondents correctly indicate that they viewed a gay couple. For those exposed to the lesbian condition, 100 percent of respondents correctly indicated. These results indicate that both manipulations work as intended. To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more) ANOVA was conducted for both the gay and lesbian check measure. For the gay product stereotype check there was a significant main effect of product type (F[3,102]=14.172, p<.001), while no other effect is significant. Participants who viewed the Dove body wash rated the product as more consistent with stereotypes about gay men (M=4.23) than those who were exposed to the Levi’s jeans (M=2.68). For the lesbian product stereotype check, there was a significant main effect of product type (F[3, Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 23 102]=15.178, p<.001), while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw the Levi’s jeans rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbian women (M=5.26) than those who saw the Dove body wash (M=3.28). Findings To examine attitude toward the ad, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward the ad as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on ad attitude, (F[3,102]=6.33, p<.001). Participants in the gay condition had a more favorable attitude when exposed to the Dove body wash (M=5.70) compared to the Levi’s jeans (M=4.18, F[1,102]=12.35, p<.001). In addition, those in lesbian condition had a more favorable attitude toward the ad for Levi’s jeans (M=5.06) compared to the body wash (M=3.96, F[1,102]=6.11, p<.05). To assess WOM, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on WOM (F[3,102]=6.88, p<.001). Participants in the gay condition had a stronger WOM with the Dove body wash (M=5.32) compared to the Levi’s jeans (M=4.26, F[1,102]=7.38, p<.01), while participants in lesbian condition had a stronger WOM for Levi’s jeans (M=5.12) compared to the Dove body wash (M=3.69, F[1,102]=12.61, p<.001). Consistent with Study 2, a case of moderated mediation is proposed. The same analysis was conducted using the SPSS macro designed by Preacher, Rucker and Hayes (2007; model 8). First, the mediator model examined the effects of product type, sexual orientation, and their interaction on model-product fit was predicted by product type. The significant interaction Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 24 (𝛽= -2.38, SE=.42; 95% CI: -.32, -.1.6) suggests that the direct effect of sexual orientation, through model-product fit varies based on product type. The second mediator model examined product type, sexual orientation, model-product fit, and the product type * sexual orientation interactions as predictors of attitude toward the ad. This analysis revealed a significant effect of model-product fit on attitude toward the ad (𝛽=.44, SE=.14; 95% CI: .12, .68) and a significant interaction (𝛽= -1.65, SE=.69; 95% CI: -3.0, -.29). As expected, we find that model-product fit depends on product type. Using the recommended bootstrapping technique for testing conditional indirect effects, the results confirm success of moderated mediation (effect: -.96, SE .37, CI: -1.9, -3.6). In sum, Study 3 results confirm a replication of the findings from Study 1 and Study 2. These findings are discussed in more detail below. GENERAL DISCUSSION Gays and lesbians are increasingly recognized by brands as a lucrative market that needs to be advertised to beyond a few niche channels. Although prior research documents mainstream consumers prefer ads that feature hetereosexual imagery, there is a need to identify when heterosexual consumers are more accepting of explicit gay and lesbian imagery. Accordingly, there is a need for research in this area. The purpose of these studies was to examine how fit between explicit gay and lesbian imagery and product type influenced mainstream (i.e., heterosexual) consumers’ evaluations of ads. In an effort to extend the literature on gender and model-product fit, Study 1 examined congruity theory by looking at consumer responses to ads featuring products consistent or inconsistent with gay and lesbian stereotypes. Findings indicate participants had more positive Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 25 attitude toward the ad and greater intention to spread positive WOM when the product depicted in the ad was more consistent with sexual orientation stereotype. This confirms prior work in the congruity and “match-up” literature streams, and extends it by examining it in the context of sexual orientation. Study 2 sought to better understand the underlying mechanisms that help explain the relationship between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Guided by the match-up hypothesis and congruity theory, we predicted perceived model-product fit would mediate the effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad. Specifically, we expected product type to moderate the direct relationship of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad, the direct relationship of sexual orientation on model-product fit, and that the indirect relationship between these two factors is mediated by model-product fit. Indeed, Study 2 confirmed this model of moderated mediation. Similar to previous studies examining how ad attributes such as a celebrity endorser or brand-product congruity, these findings suggest that explicit gay and lesbian imagery can result in positive evaluations of an ad when it is “fits” within a consumers’ existing schemas. Prior research indicates consumers make congruence judgments based on evaluations of the ad and consumer knowledge about advertising (i.e., ad schema). Thus, our model of moderated mediation indicates when consumers view gay and lesbian imagery in ads, both ad schema and sexual orientation schema influence their evaluation of the ad. This is illustrated through the empirical findings demonstrating the importance modelproduct fit has on explaining consumer reactions to interplay of sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Study 3 worked to expand the purview of this research by examining a similar set of products using different brands. Findings confirmed the model of moderated mediation Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 26 hypothesized in Study 2 and also indicated participants had more positive attitudes and stronger intention to spread positive WOM when exposed to ads featuring product more consistent with gay and lesbian stereotypes. This study also suggests that the brand plays a role in understanding consumer stereotypes about gays and lesbians. Managerial Implications The GLBT community continues to receive increasing recognition as a lucrative target market. Prior research has noted when advertisers market directly to a GLBT target audience, consumers in this market consider the brand to be supportive of the GLBT community and human rights (Penaloza, 1996). Further, GLBT consumers are more likely to purchase from brands that market directly to the audience (Harris Interactive). Considering a large proportion of GLBT consumers do not subscribe to niche media that targets this population exclusively, advertisers must use “mainstream” media to reach this valuable audience. However, how can brands begin to advertise explicitly to this market without alienating others? This work suggests that for some products one way to do so is incorporate explicit images of gay and lesbian models in a way that is congruent with consumers’ existing schemas. For advertisers, it is important to conduct strategic market research in order to identify potential opportunities for pairing products with GLBT images in order to help build brand awareness and loyalty among this community. In Studies 1 and 2, a kitchen cleaner was identified as the stereotype-consistent product for lesbians. Despite prior research that indicates lesbians are associated with more masculine stereotypes, a kitchen cleaner may be a product typically associated with domesticity and traditional female roles. One possible reason for this is that lesbians tend to be presented as highly sexualized and perceived as desirable to heterosexual men. Thus, it may be that lesbian women are associated with a product related to more traditional female roles, mirroring the fact Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 27 that they are sexualized in a way common to all women depicted in ads. However, when examining different brands in study 3, the product identified as more stereotype consistent (Levi’s jeans) for lesbians was the same as that identified for heterosexual men. This is a pattern more consistent with stereotypical archetypes of lesbians (i.e., masculinity or functional). These findings highlight the complexity of stereotypes and suggests additional research is needed to understand emerging attitudes and stereotypes about lesbians. Additionally, the findings from this set of studies highlights the important role branding plays in defining a particular product. In Studies 1 and 2, Calvin Klein jeans were identified as more stereotype consistent for gay men (and heterosexual women), whereas in Study 3 Levi’s jeans were found to be more stereotype consistent for lesbian women (and heterosexual men). Jeans from both brands likely have many similarities in terms of cut, color, and style; yet the brand image for Calvin Klein jeans tends to be sexy and fashion-forward, while Levi’s has a history of being a more traditional and functional brand of jeans. Similarly, in Studies 1 and 2 Clorox kitchen cleaner was the product most consistent with lesbians, whereas in Study 3 Dove body wash was identified as the product most consistent with gays. Perhaps the Clorox brand is associated with being more masculine or functional, whereas Dove is perceived as being more feminine. These findings also suggest brands could begin to integrate more representations of gays and lesbians in their ads. Currently, mainstream media seem to depict gay men more frequently than lesbian women. Previous scholars posit this may be because the gay male target audience tends to have a higher income than lesbian women. However, Study 2 found intention to spread positive WOM was stronger for lesbian-congruent ads than gay-congruent ads. Thus, including lesbian women in ads more frequently may lead to an increase in positive response from both Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 28 mainstream and GLBT consumers. Additionally, it may have a greater lasting impact on the brand because consumer WOM is often considered more trustworthy than company generated communication efforts. Although the model-product congruent stereotypes discussed here may facilitate easier cognitive processing and more positive evaluations of an ad, it is important that advertisers remain mindful of the potentially harmful effects of relying heavily on stereotypes about minority populations such as the GLBT community. It is important to include the voices of this frequently marginalized population in the development of any ad that incorporates modelproduct congruent stereotypes. Engaging GLBT consumers in the copy and creative testing processes can prevent the use of stereotypes based on clichés that could be perceived as displaying a disregard for the diversity of identities and gender expression within the GLBT community. Further, both scholars and advertising practitioners are increasingly encouraging the use of ads to help reduce potentially harmful stereotypes (Collins, 2011; Gianatasio, 2013). For example, the recent introduction of the Glass Lion award is an example of the industry’s burgeoning efforts to address issues of gender inequality and prejudice. Additionally, consumer interaction with digital media is helping advertisers better tailor their messages based on more nuanced consumer insights rather than broad generalizations (Gianatasio, 2013). Looking Ahead This study was not without limitations. Although our aim was to examine stereotypes specifically associated with sexual orientation, it is important to recognize that human identity is complex and comprised of many facets. It is likely that some stereotypes may overlap with other aspects of one’s identity and/or that certain identities (age, gender, physical appearance, etc.) and the associated stereotypes may be more salient than others. Additionally, to better present clear Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 29 and concise findings, the current study explored ads with gay/lesbian couples and families in separate studies. Subsequent studies should examine if consumers have different responses to ads with couples versus families. Finally, much like other sub-populations in the US, the GLBT community is diverse with various ethnicities, gender identities, and sexual orientations. Future research should incorporate more diverse GLBT representation in their ads. 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The Word of Mouth Dynamic: How Positive (and Negative) WOM Drives Purchase Probability: An Analysis of Interpersonal and Non-Interpersonal Factors. Journal Of Advertising Research, 53(1), 43-60. doi:10.2501/JAR-53-1-043-060 WALKER, M., LANGMEYER, L., AND LANGMEYER, D. (1992). Celebrity endorsers: do you get what you pay for? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 9(2), 69-76. WITECH COMMUNICATIONS. (2015). America’s LGBT 2014 buying power estimated at $884 billion [press release]. Accessed December 15, 2015 at http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2010/09/how-to-cite-a-press-release-in-apa-style.html Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 36 Figure 1a. Interaction between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad Attitude Toward the Ad 7 6 5 5.84 5.63 4.9 4.87 Gay Lesbian 4 3 Luxury Jeans Kitchen Cleaner Figure 1b. Interaction between sexual orientation and product type on positive word of mouth Positive WOM 7 6 5 4.8 4.66 5.45 Gay 4.3 Lesbian 4 3 Luxury Jeans Kitchen Cleaner Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 37 Figure. 2 Mediated-‐Moderation Model Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research APPENDIX 1A: STUDY 1 ADS 38 Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 39 Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research APPENDIX 1B: STUDY 2 ADS 40 Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 41 Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 42 APPENDIX 1C: STUDY 3 ADS Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 43