Download Consumer Stereotypes to Gay and Lesbian Imagery

Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 1
How Product Type and Stereotypes Affect Consumer Response to
Gay and Lesbian Imagery
ABSTRACT
Gay and lesbian consumers are increasingly recognized as a lucrative target market.
Advertisements more frequently incorporate images of people who are gay and lesbian; however,
more research is needed to understand mainstream (heterosexual) consumer response to these
ads. Three studies were conducted to explore how sexual orientation, product type, and modelproduct fit influence consumer reactions to ads with gay and lesbian imagery. Findings suggest
product type moderates the effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad and word-ofmouth and that positive evaluations of an ad may occur when gay and lesbian imagery “fits”
within a consumers’ existing schemas. This work offers implications for advertisers and brand
managers.
INTRODUCTION
Gay and lesbian consumers are increasingly recognized as a lucrative and important
target market by brands. In fact, the combined buying power of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and
transgender (GLBT) U.S. adults was estimated to be $884 billion in 2014 (Witeck
Communications, 2015). Further, consumer research indicates 71% GLBT adults are more likely
to support a brand that features equality-themed advertisements (Poggi, 2015). Thus, it is not
surprising that brands including Coke, Tiffany and Co., Hallmark, Honey Maid, and JCPenny
have all incorporated gay and lesbian couples or families in recent advertisements featured in
mainstream (i.e. heterosexual target audience) media. How do consumers react to such ads?
Although these ads received some negative feedback from consumers – the latter two brands
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responded with messages indicating their continued commitment to representing more diverse
families in their advertising (ABC News, 2014; Cullers, 2012). Further, positive consumer
feedback well outnumbered the criticisms for some of the ads. While still relatively minimal,
depictions of gay and lesbian individuals, couples, and families appear more frequently in
mainstream advertising and media. The widespread popularity of television shows such as
Modern Family (featuring a married gay couple) and Ellen (a talk show hosted by “out” lesbian
Ellen Degeneres) are just two examples of this shift in the media. Significant changes in public
policy such as the 2015 supreme court decision stating marriage is a fundamental right
guaranteed to same-sex couples (Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015) and the 2010 repeal of “Don’t Ask
Don’t Tell” indicate that public sentiment toward individuals who identify as gay or lesbian is
changing. According to a 2012 Gallup public opinion poll, more than 50% of American adults
consider gay or lesbian relations morally acceptable – a proportion that has grown consistently
from 38% in 2002 (Saad, 2012).
Despite these changes, the majority of companies try to walk a thin line between
appealing to both gays and lesbians and mainstream consumers without alienating one or the
other (particularly the latter as it is much larger). Brands may do this by limiting their depictions
of gays and lesbians to ads placed in niche channels such as GLBT-targeted magazines like OUT
and The Advocate. Another tactic advertisers use is implicit rather than explicit gay and lesbian
imagery because while most in this sub-group can identify subtle cues, mainstream consumers
often do not and therefore are not likely to be offended. Previous empirical research on this topic
has supported the notion that advertisers should use implicit rather than explicit gay and lesbian
imagery (Bhat, Leigh and Wardlow, 1998; Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2004; Oakenfull and
Greenlee, 2005; Oakenfull, McCarthy and Greenlee, 2008). However, recent positive consumer
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response to advertisements featuring gay and lesbian imagery indicates such implicit efforts may
no longer be necessary as positive reaction is increasing. Therefore, marketers and advertisers
must examine the question, “How do mainstream consumers react to explicit gay and lesbian
imagery?” In addition, marketers must determine what could influence consumer reactions to
such ads. One such factor could be the type of product paired with explicit gay and lesbian
imagery. Perhaps a product that is congruent with stereotypes about gays or lesbians is better
received among mainstream consumers than a product that is perceived as incongruent.
The purpose of the current study is to examine mainstream consumer response to ads
featuring gays and lesbians in ads for products that are less or more consistent with relevant
stereotypes. This research is examined in three studies. Study 1 examines gay and lesbian
couples and product type on consumers’ attitude toward the ad and intention to spread positive
word-of-mouth (WOM). Study 2 examines gay and lesbian families and product type to
replicate findings, and considers model-product fit as a mediator to the interplay of sexual
orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Study 3 seeks to replicate findings from
Study 1 and Study 2 using a different set of products. These findings have the potential to help
advertisers and brand managers identify how best to target both GLBT and heterosexual
consumers effectively through strategically pairing certain product types with diverse depictions
of gays and lesbians.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gender and sexuality has long been examined in advertising research (e.g. Bhat et al,
1998; Ford and LaTour, 1993; Oakenfull, McCarthy and Greenlee, 2008; Reichert, LaTour, and
Ford, 2011). Congruity theory provides one framework for understanding how individuals
respond to depictions of gender in advertising that are not consistent with their existing schemas.
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Congruity theory suggests consumers evaluate features of an ad against their personal schema
and make congruence judgments about how well the two match (Johnson and Grier, 2011;
Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989). Most prior research indicates consumers have less favorable
reactions to ads that feature imagery inconsistent with expectations (e.g. Johnson and Grier
2011). Thus, images that are incongruent with existing schema – such as ads featuring gay or
lesbian couples – may lead to more negative outcomes than those with more expected depictions
of heterosexual couples. Indeed, scholars have begun to examine how heterosexual consumers
respond to depictions of gays and lesbians in advertising. Generally, among heterosexual
consumers, research indicates ads featuring same-gender couples tend to elicit more negative
attitudes and emotions compared to traditional images (Angelini and Bradley, 2010; Bhat et al.,
1998; Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2005; Oakenfull et al., 2008). However, important nuances exist
that add context and clarity to these findings. Bhat and colleagues (1998) found that attitude
toward an ad depicting a gay couple was moderated by participants’ a priori prejudices about gay
men. Specifically, those with negative attitudes toward being gay had stronger negative emotions
toward the ad imagery than those who did not have prejudiced attitudes. These findings support
the notion that the strength of one’s in-group affiliation plays a critical role in how consumers
process ads that feature members of an out-group. Other studies have considered how
heterosexual consumers’ respond to ads that vary the degree to which the imagery presented was
overtly gay (e.g., a same-sex couple in a romantic setting) or used implicit symbols (e.g.,
rainbows, pink triangles, and other unique iconography). Not surprisingly, heterosexual
consumers tend to have more positive attitudes toward ads with implicit rather than explicit gay
or lesbian imagery (Oakenfull and Greenlee, 2005).
Consumers also react to stereotypes when responding to or evaluating an ad. A stereotype
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is defined as “one group’s generalized and widely accepted beliefs about the personal attributes
of members of another group” (Sheehan 2012, p.75). The crux of a stereotype is that every
person who belongs to the group is a generic exemplar of a type or category rather than a unique
individual. Stereotypes are developed from social influence, lived experience, and the media, and
typically lead to people categorizing the world into groups (Fiske, 2000). Therefore stereotypes
are associated with normative expectations (Fiske, 2000). Stereotype activation refers to
increased accessibility of cognitive associations for a particular social group. Research indicates
that both conscious and unconscious exposure to a member of a stereotyped social group (e.g.,
by an ad) can result in the automatic activation of stereotype characteristics (Blair and Banaji
1996; Kawak-ami, Dion, and Dovido 1998). Of particular import to the current study is that the
stereotypes many consumers are likely to hold about romantic couples or families are that they
are comprised of a heterosexual man and woman. Accordingly, consumers may react negatively
when ads portray couples or families as gay or lesbian. A great deal of research has focused on
gender-role stereotypes in advertising, but the stereotypes associated with sexual orientation and
how they impact consumer response to ads is lacking.
Stereotypes are considered a heuristic that facilitates quicker cognitive processing. As a
result, it is widely documented that advertisers use stereotypical imagery because it is an
effective way to quickly communicate an idea or sentiment (Sheehan, 2013). Gender-role
stereotypes are one pervasive stereotype. These stereotypes focus on and contrast personality
traits, predispositions, social orientations, and behavioral tendencies of the two sexes. This may
manifest in ads that rely on stereotypes related to gender-related products. For example, it is
more common to see women featured in cosmetics ads and men featured in ads for hunting or
home improvement products. In addition, prior research has demonstrated that consumers tend to
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prefer products when they are depicted with imagery consistent with their schema or stereotype
(Lunch and Schuler 1994). For example, Bower and Landreth (2001) found highly attractive
models are more effective for beauty-enhancing products compared to problem-solving products.
What role does the product being paired with gay or lesbian imagery play in determining
consumer response? Perhaps a product type consistent with consumer stereotypes about gays and
lesbians would strengthen positive consumer reactions. It is well established that people have
stereotypes of gays and lesbians (e.g., Kite and Deaux, 1987). Current research suggests certain
stereotypes persist despite the shifting social acceptance of those who identify as gay or lesbian
(Blashill and Powlishta, 2009). Generally, these stereotypes relate to gay men as more feminine
and less masculine than heterosexual men; conversely, lesbian women are often cast as more
masculine and less feminine than heterosexual women (Blashill and Powlishta, 2009; Kite and
Deaux, 1987). For example, a gay man may be stereotyped as more savvy about personal
hygiene or fashion (traditionally feminine interests) than a heterosexual man, whereas a lesbian
woman is stereotyped as less interested in traditional feminine interests (Kite and Deaux, 1987).
However, it is important to note that lesbians are often portrayed as highly sexualized in
mainstream media, which influences perceptions of their femininity as well. Given the
stereotypes consumers have about gays and lesbians, it may be that pairing images of overtly gay
men and lesbian women with products framed to match these stereotypes will lead to greater
perceived congruity and positive evaluations of the ad.
Hypotheses and Dependent Variables
We examine attitude toward the ad and WOM as outcomes of advertising effectiveness
for ads featuring gay and lesbian couples based on product type. WOM is of particular interest
because recent ads featuring gays and lesbians in mainstream media have received notable
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responsiveness from consumers in the form of traditional WOM and social media. We expect an
interaction between sexual orientation and product type on both of these advertising outcomes.
Specifically, we expect attitude toward the ad will be more favorable and WOM will be stronger
when gay and lesbian imagery are paired with products more consistent with gay and lesbian
stereotypes. More formally, we forward the following hypotheses:
H1) Attitude toward the ad will be more favorable for ads that feature gay (lesbian)
imagery paired with a gay stereotype-consistent (lesbian stereotype-consistent) product
versus a stereotype-inconsistent product.
H2) WOM will be stronger for ads that feature gay (lesbian) imagery paired with a gay
stereotype-consistent (lesbian stereotype-consistent) product versus a stereotypeinconsistent product.
STUDY 1 METHODS
Pretest
The purpose of the pretest was to identify products that are most consistent with
stereotypes of gays and lesbians. An online software program was used to administer the survey.
The sample consisted of 41 members of a consumer panel, with an average age of 36 and 58%
female. All participants lived in the United States.
Consistent with prior work, real brands were used for purposes of ecological validity (e.g.
Fleck, Korchia and LeRoy, 2012); product choices included Calvin Klein jeans, Cole Haan dress
shoes, a Craftsman toolset, and Clorox kitchen cleaner. To ensure results were attributed to
stereotypes of gays and lesbians, and not stereotypes of heterosexual men and women,
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research participants were also asked to indicate how consistent each product is with stereotypes of gays,
lesbians, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women. Both the list of products and order of the
questions asking participants to rate each product in relation to stereotypes about gays, lesbians,
heterosexual men, and heterosexual women were randomized. After providing consent to
participate in the study participants were asked to “ Please indicate how consistent each product
is with stereotypes of ________________” The scale was a 7-point Likert scale anchored by
“Not at all consistent” to “Very much consistent.”
Gay-Consistent Stereotype Analysis
A comparison of means revealed Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about gays (M = 5.00, t = 19.56, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the
Calvin Klein jeans were significantly more consistent with stereotypes about gays compared to
the Cole Haan shoes (M = 4.40, p <. 05); Craftsman tools (M = 3.91, p < .001), and Clorox
Cleaner (M = 3.63, p < .001).
In addition, comparison of means revealed the Craftsman tools as the product most
consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual men (M = 5.93, t = 27.04, p < .001). A Paired
Samples T test confirmed the Craftman toolset was significantly more consistent with
stereotypes about heterosexual men compared to the Calvin Klein jeans (M = 4.08, p <. 001),
Cole Haan dress shoes (M = 4.02, p <. 001), and the Clorox cleaner (M = 3.51, p <.001).
Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between
perceptions of Calvin Klein jeans associated with gays (M=5.10) and heterosexual men (M =
4.08, p <.001), and between perceptions of the Craftsman toolset for stereotypes associated with
heterosexual men (M = 5.93) and gay men (M = 3.91, p < .001).
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In sum, results revealed Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about gays.
Lesbian-Consistent Stereotype Analysis
A comparison of means revealed the Clorox cleaner as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about lesbians (M = 5.00, t=19.56, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the
Clorox cleaner was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians compared to the
Calvin Klein jeans (M = 3.65, p < .001), (Cole Haan shoes (M = 3.75, p <. 001) and Craftsman
tools (M = 4.90, p < .001).
A comparison of means revealed the Calvin Klein jeans as the product most consistent
with stereotypes about heterosexual women (M = 5.15, t = 23.14, p < .001). A Paired Samples T
test confirmed the Calvin Klein jeans were significantly more consistent with stereotypes about
heterosexual women compared to the Cole Haan dress shoes (M = 4.07, p <. 001), Craftsman
toolset (M = 3.39, p <. 001), and the Clorox cleaner (M = 3.94, p <.001).
Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between
perceptions of the Clorox cleaner associated with lesbians (M=5.00) and heterosexual women (M
= 3.94, p <.001), and between perceptions of Calvin Klein jeans for stereotypes associated with
heterosexual women (M = 5.15) and lesbians (M = 3.65, p < .001).
Accordingly, these results revealed Clorox cleaner as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about lesbians. In sum, findings from the pretest suggest Calvin Klein jeans as the product most
consistent with gays and Clorox cleaner the product most consistent for lesbians.
Main Study
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The objective of Study 1 was to assess the interplay of sexual orientation and product
type on advertising effectiveness. A 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product
stereotype: less versus more consistent) between-subjects experimental design was used.
Fictitious ads were created and served as the stimuli for this study (see Appendix 1A). Sexual
orientation was manipulated through ad imagery. Based on pretest results, Calvin Klein jeans
was used as the product more consistent with stereotypes about gays and Clorox kitchen cleaner
was used as the product more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians.
An online software program was used to administer the survey. The sample consisted of
121 members of a consumer research panel, with the average age being 42. All of the
participants lived in the US and 58% of the sample was female. Participants were randomly
assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. After being exposed to the advertising
stimuli, participants responded to the dependent measures and manipulation checks, which are
discussed in the results section. Participants were also asked to disclose their gender, provide
demographic information, their sexual orientation, and answer questions pertaining to their
beliefs about sexual orientation. These variables had no effect on our measures and are not
discussed further.
Measures
Attitude toward ad was assessed using four items on a 7-point semantic differential scale:
bad/good, unfavorable/favorable, dislike/like and negative/positive (α=.94) (Um, 2014). WOM
was measured using three items on a 7-point Likert-scale: “I would recommend this brand,” “I
would say positive things about this brand,” “I would suggest this brand to someone who asks
my advice” (α = .92) (Vázquez-Casielles, Suárez-Álvarez and del Río-Lanza, 2013). The product
type manipulation was assessed using the following two items: “The product depicted in the ad is
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consistent with stereotypes of gay men,” and “The product depicted in the ad is consistent with
stereotypes of lesbian women,” anchored by strongly disagree to strongly agree on a 7-point
Likert scale.
STUDY 1 RESULTS
Manipulation Checks
Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The
sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking
“What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 264.00
(p<.0001). Each cell was examined to determine how many participants accurately answered
sexual orientation manipulation check. For those exposed to the gay condition, 100% of
respondents correctly indicate that they viewed a gay couple and for those exposed to the lesbian
condition, 100% of respondents correctly indicated they viewed a lesbian couple. These results
indicate the sexual orientation manipulation was successful.
To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay
versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted for
both the gay and lesbian checks. For the gay product stereotype check there is a significant main
effect of product type (F[3,117]=15.5, p<.001), while no other effect is significant. Participants
who viewed the Calvin Klein jeans rated the product as more consistent with stereotypes of gays
(M=3.87) compared to those who were exposed to the Clorox cleaner (M=2.32). In addition, for
the lesbian product stereotype check there is a significant main effect of product type (F[3,
117 ]=14.7, p<.001), while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw
the Clorox cleaner rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbians (M=3.63)
compared to those who saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=2.24).
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Test of Hypotheses
To assess H1, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less
versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward the ad as the dependent
variable. Results reveal a significant interaction of sexual orientation and product type on
participant’s attitude toward the ad (F[3,117]=9.17, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had
a more favorable attitude toward the ad when they saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=5.63)
compared to those who saw the Clorox cleaner (M=4.90, F[1,117]=3.76, p<.05). In addition, as
depicted in Figure 1a, participants in the lesbian condition had a more favorable attitude toward
the ad when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=5.84), compared to those who saw the Calvin Klein
jeans (M=4.87, F[1,117]=5.44, p<.05). Thus, H1 is supported.
INSERT FIGURE 1A ABOUT HERE
To assess H2, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less
versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable.
Findings reveal a significant interaction of sexual orientation and product type on WOM,
(F[3,117]=7.40, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had higher WOM when they saw the
Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.80) than when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=4.30, F[1,117]=.196, p<.10). In addition, as depicted in Figure 1b, participants in the lesbian condition had higher
WOM when they saw the Clorox cleaner (M=5.45) compared to the Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.66,
F[1,117]=10.84, p<.05). Accordingly, H2 is supported.
INSERT FIGURE 1B ABOUT HERE
Study 1 Discussion
A contribution of this research is to question whether mainstream consumer response to
ads featuring people who are unambiguously gay and lesbian vary depending on product type.
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Study 1 results suggest that product type does impact consumer reactions to ads featuring gays
and lesbians in the form of consumer attitude toward the ad and intention to spread positive
WOM. Study 1 demonstrates primarily positive outcomes when the product featured in the ad is
perceived as consistent with the stereotype of the sexual orientation depicted in the ad.
Additionally, the positive WOM findings may indicate consumers are supportive of brands that
feature people with more diverse sexual orientation in their ads. This is consistent with the
positive feedback Honey Maid received after including a family comprised of two gay fathers
with their infant son; many consumers shared positive feedback about the brand via social media
as an indicator of support for the company. Interestingly, the contrast effects demonstrate that the
lesbian-product congruent condition drove the WOM results more so than the gay-congruent
product condition. Perhaps consumers are used to seeing gay imagery and appreciate and
applaud ads using lesbian imagery.
Findings from the current study suggest it is the fit between the sexual orientation of the
imagery depicted in the ad and the product featured in the ad that facilitate outcomes. However,
model-product fit was not measured in the current study. It is expected model-product fit could
serve as the underlying mechanism to explain the interplay of sexual orientation and product type
on attitude toward the ad. Study 2 examines this conjecture.
In addition, Study 1 featured gay and lesbian couples, which are depicted more frequently
in mainstream media compared to gay and lesbian families. After searching articles published in
several top advertising and marketing journals in the past 10 years, we were unable to find
existing empirical research on how mainstream consumers respond to ads with gay and lesbian
families (i.e., those that include same gender parents and at least one child). This is important as
brands are increasingly depicting gay and lesbian families in their ads. Therefore, in study 2 we
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sought to examine how mainstream consumers’ evaluated ads that featured gay and lesbian
families.
STUDY 2
The purpose of Study 2 was twofold: first, we wanted to establish ecological validity by
replicating Study 1 findings using ads that feature gay and lesbian families instead of a couple.
Second, we wanted to explore the potential mediating role that model-product fit has on
understanding the interplay between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the
ad.
Hypotheses Development
Model-product fit, relatedness, or congruence (hereafter referred to as “model-product
fit”) is one of the most widely accepted constructs used to measure effectiveness of endorsers.
Although no uniform definition of fit or match is yet provided, the literature consistently attests
that a good match-up between a person or model and a product is more effective for eliciting
positive consumer responses to advertising compared to a bad fit between them (e.g. Kamins,
1990; Kamins and Gupta, 1994). The “match-up hypothesis” (e.g., Kamins, 1990), suggests that
endorsers are more effective when there is a “fit” between the endorser and the endorsed product.
The origin of the match-up hypothesis lies in advertising research that has examined the varying
impact different type of endorsers, often celebrities, have on the endorsed product or brand. It’s
been long established that effectiveness of endorsers varies by product (Friedman and Friedman,
1979). For example, a study by Kanungo and Pang (1973) paired female and male models (noncelebrities) with different product types and found that the effect of the models varied depending
on the product with which the models were paired. These findings were explained in the
“fittingness” or “belongingness” of the model for the product.
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Early studies on the match-up hypothesis examined this supposition in the context of
physical attractiveness and found attractive celebrities to be more persuasive when promoting
products related to physical attractiveness (Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins, 1990). More recent
studies have shown perceived congruence between person-image and product-image as an
important match-up feature (Till and Busler, 2000). Prior research has demonstrated that the
more relevant, or congruent the person-product pair is perceived to be, the greater the positive
response to the advertisement (Batra and Homer, 2004; Erdogan and Baker, 2000; Kamins, 1990;
Misra and Beatty, 1990; Till and Busler, 2000). These results provide empirical support for the
central premise of this theoretical approach that a fit between a person and the product is
instrumental in understanding consumer response to ads. Our work uses this theoretical
underpinning as the foundation to examine if model-product fit explains the relationship between
sexual orientation and product type on consumers’ attitude toward the ad.
We expect perceptions of model-product fit to mediate the relationship between sexual
orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Specifically, we predict product type
moderates the direct effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad, and the indirect effect
of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad. More formally, we posit the following:
H3) Model-product fit will mediate the interplay between sexual orientation and product
type on attitude toward the ad.
METHODS
Consistent with Study 1, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay vs. lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype:
less versus more consistent) between-subjects design was used. The procedure was identical to
that used for Study 1, except the ad featured families instead of couples (see Appendix 1B). The
measures for attitude toward the ad and WOM were identical to Study 1. Perceptions of model-
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product fit were measured using four items on a 7-point Likert scale anchored by strongly
disagree/strongly agree: “The couple in this ad are suited to the featured product,” “I didn’t
expect to see such a couple for this product” (R), “Associating this couple with this product
seems natural,” and “choosing this couple for this product is appropriate” (Johnson and Grier,
2011).
Sample and Procedures
The sample consisted of 135 members of a consumer research panel; 54% female. The
average age was 38 and all participants lived in the US. Participants were randomly assigned to
one of four experimental conditions. The procedures were identical to Study 1. Consistent with
Study 1, participants were also asked to provide demographic information, their sexual
orientation, and information pertaining to their beliefs about sexual orientation; since these
variables had no effect on our measures, we do not discuss them further.
STUDY 2 RESULTS
Manipulation Checks Findings
Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The
sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking
“What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 243.74
(p<.0001). For those exposed to the gay condition, 100 percent of respondents correctly indicate
that they viewed a gay couple. For those exposed to the lesbian condition, 97.3% of respondents
correctly indicated. These results indicate that both manipulations work as intended.
To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay
versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted for
both the gay and lesbian check measure. For the gay product stereotype check there was a
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 17
significant main effect (F[3,131]=14.172, p<.05), while no other effect is significant. Participants
who viewed the Calvin Klein jeans rated the product as more consistent with stereotypes of gays
(M=3.91) than those who were exposed to the Clorox cleaner (M=2.52). For the lesbian product
stereotype check, there was a significant main effect of product type (F[3 131]=15.178, p<.001),
while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw the Clorox cleaner
rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbian women (M=3.56) than those who
saw the Calvin Klein jeans (M=2.32).
Replication of Study 1 Findings
Although not formally hypothesized, to assess ecological validity, H1 and H2 were
assessed. To examine attitude toward the ad, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2
(product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward
the ad as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual
orientation and product type on ad attitude, (F[3,131]=20.49, p<.001). Participants in the gay
condition had a more favorable attitude when exposed to Calvin Klein jeans (M=5.22) compared
to the Clorox cleaner (M=3.56, F[1,131]=18.63, p<.001). In addition, those in lesbian condition
had a more favorable attitude toward the ad for Clorox cleaner (M=4.81) compared to Calvin
Klein jeans (M=4.27, F[1,131]=28.94, p<.05).
To assess WOM, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less
versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable.
Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on WOM
(F[3,131]=4.04, p<.05). Participants in the gay condition had a stronger WOM with the Calvin
Klein jeans (M=5.31) compared to the Clorox cleaner (M=4.91, F[1,131]=6.02, p<.10), while
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 18
participants in lesbian condition had a stronger WOM for the Clorox cleaner (M=5.02, SD=0.34)
compared to Calvin Klein jeans (M=4.12, F[1,131]=4.02, p<.05).
In sum, together this analyses demonstrate these findings replicate Study 1 findings.
Test of Hypothesis
As Figure 2 depicts, we propose a case of moderated mediation (Muller, Judd and
Yzerbyt, 2005), in which product type moderates the indirect effect sexual orientation on attitude
toward ad through model-product fit. Specifically, we predict product type moderates the direct
effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad, and the indirect effect of sexual orientation
on attitude toward the ad. To assess the moderated mediation proposed in H3 we analyzed the
conditions using an SPSS macro designed by Preacher, Rucker and Hayes (2007; model 8),
which incorporates a bootstrapping procedure that generates a sample size of 5,000 to assess the
regression models necessary for mediation.
INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE
The first mediator model examined the effects of product type, sexual orientation, and
their interaction on model-product fit was predicted by product type. The significant interaction
(𝛽=3.18, SE=.45; 95% CI: -2.28, -4.08) suggests that the direct effect of sexual orientation,
through model-product fit varies based on product type. The second mediator model examined
product type, sexual orientation, model-product fit, and the product type * sexual orientation
interactions as predictors of attitude toward the ad. This analysis revealed a significant effect of
model-product fit on attitude toward the ad (𝛽=.49, SE=.09; 95% CI: .30, .68), and a significant
interaction (𝛽=2.14, SE=.58; 95% CI: -.99, -3.29,). As expected, we find that model-product fit
depends on product type. Using the recommended bootstrapping technique for testing
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 19
conditional indirect effects, the results confirm success of moderated mediation (effect: -.1.58,
SE .39, CI: -2.5, -.93). .
Study 2 Discussion
A contribution of this research is to question whether mainstream consumer response to
ads featuring models who are unambiguously gay and lesbian are explained by model-product
fit. Findings from this study reveal the interaction between sexual orientation and product type
on attitude toward the ad is facilitated through perceptions of model-product fit. These findings
are consistent with prior work that has examined a fit between the person featured in the ad and
the product. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first to examine the theoretical underpinnings
in the context of sexual orientation.
STUDY 3
Study 1 and Study 2 demonstrate the importance of congruity between the person and
product featured in ads. However, Studies 1 and 2 are limited by focusing on the same set of
products. Therefore, to provide further support for ecological validity it is necessary to examine
the posited predictions using a new set of products. In addition, this final study also helps to shed
light on how branding might influence product stereotypes that are more consistent with
stereotypes about gays and lesbians. The purpose of Study 3 is to replicate findings from Studies
1 and 2 using a new set of products. The pretest is discussed first, followed by a description of
the main study, and results.
STUDY 3 METHODS
Pretest
The purpose of the pretest was to identify new products that are most consistent with
stereotypes of gays and lesbians. An online software program was used to administer the survey.
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 20
The sample consisted of 40 members of a consumer panel, with an average age of 38 and 54%
female. All participants lived in the United States.
Consistent with Studies 1 and 2, real brands were used for purposes of ecological validity;
product choices included Levi’s jeans, Dove body wash, Tide laundry detergent and Bosche
windshield wiper blades. The procedures and measure of stereotype consistency were identical to
those in the first pretest.
Gay-Consistent Stereotype Analysis
A comparison of means revealed Dove body wash as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about gays (M = 5.10, t = 31.23, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed the
Dove body was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about gays compared to Levi’s
jeans (M = 4.15, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 4.65, p < .05), and Bosch windshield
wipers (M = 4.20, p < .001).
In addition comparison of means revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent
with stereotypes about heterosexual men (M = 5.70, t = 37.32, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test
confirmed Levi’s jeans was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about heterosexual
men compared to Dove body wash (M = 3.38, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 3.90, p <.
001), and the Bosch windshield wipers (M = 5.10, p <. 05).
Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between
perceptions of Dove body wash associated with gays (M=5.10) and heterosexual men (M = 3.38,
p <.001), and between perceptions of Levi’s jeans for stereotypes associated with heterosexual
men (M = 5.70) and gay men (M = 4.15, p < .001).
In sum, results revealed Dove body wash as the product most consistent with stereotypes
about gays.
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 21
Lesbian-Consistent Stereotype Analysis
A comparison of means revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about lesbians (M = 5.10, t=25.26, p < .001). A Paired Samples T Test confirmed
Levi’s jeans was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about lesbians compared to Dove
body wash (M = 3.95, p < .001), Tide laundry detergent (M = 4.18, p <. 001) and Bosch
windshield wipers (M = 4.75, p < .05).
A comparison of means revealed the Dove body wash as the product most consistent with
stereotypes about heterosexual women (M = 6.00, t = 43.27, p < .001). A Paired Samples T test
confirmed the Dove body wash was significantly more consistent with stereotypes about
heterosexual women compared to the Levi’s jeans (M = 3.00, p <. 001), Tide laundry detergent
(M = 5.60, p <. 05), and the Bosch windshield wipers (M = 4.03, p <.001).
Finally, a Paired Samples T test confirmed there was a significant difference between
perceptions of Levi’s jeans associated with lesbian women (M=5.10) and heterosexual women
(M = 3.00, p < .001), and between perceptions of Dove body wash for stereotypes associated
with heterosexual women (M = 6.00) and lesbian women (M = 3.95, p < .001).
Accordingly, results revealed Levi’s jeans as the product most consistent with stereotypes
about lesbians. In sum, the pretest findings suggest that Dove body wash is the product most consistent
with stereotypes associated with gays, and Levi’s jeans the product most associated with
stereotypes with lesbians.
Main Study Sample and Procedures
Consistent with Study 1 and Study 2, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay vs. lesbian) × 2
(product stereotype: less versus more consistent) between-subjects design was used. The
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 22
procedure was identical to that used for Study1 and Study 2, except the ads featured the new
branded products (Levi’s jeans and Dove body wash) identified in the pretest (see Appendix 1C).
The measures for attitude toward the ad, WOM, and model fit were identical to Study 2.
Consistent with Study 1 and Study 2, participants were also asked to provide demographic
information, their sexual orientation, and information pertaining to their beliefs about sexual
orientation; since these variables had no effect on our measures, we do not discuss them further.
The sample consisted of 106 members of a consumer research panel; 54% female and 46%
male. The average age was 40 and all participants lived in the US.
STUDY 3 RESULTS
Manipulation Checks Findings
Cross-tabulation results assess the success of the sexual orientation manipulation. The
sexual orientation condition is cross-classified with participant responses to a question asking
“What best describes the couple that was featured in the ad?” The resulting χ2 is 106.00
(p<.0001). For those exposed to the gay condition, 100 percent of respondents correctly indicate
that they viewed a gay couple. For those exposed to the lesbian condition, 100 percent of
respondents correctly indicated. These results indicate that both manipulations work as intended.
To assess the effectiveness of the product type manipulation, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay
versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less versus more) ANOVA was conducted for both the
gay and lesbian check measure. For the gay product stereotype check there was a significant
main effect of product type (F[3,102]=14.172, p<.001), while no other effect is significant.
Participants who viewed the Dove body wash rated the product as more consistent with
stereotypes about gay men (M=4.23) than those who were exposed to the Levi’s jeans (M=2.68).
For the lesbian product stereotype check, there was a significant main effect of product type (F[3,
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 23
102]=15.178, p<.001), while no other effects were significant. Specifically, participants who saw
the Levi’s jeans rated the product more consistent with stereotypes of lesbian women (M=5.26)
than those who saw the Dove body wash (M=3.28).
Findings
To examine attitude toward the ad, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2
(product stereotype: less versus more consistent) ANOVA was conducted using attitude toward
the ad as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a significant interaction between sexual
orientation and product type on ad attitude, (F[3,102]=6.33, p<.001). Participants in the gay
condition had a more favorable attitude when exposed to the Dove body wash (M=5.70)
compared to the Levi’s jeans (M=4.18, F[1,102]=12.35, p<.001). In addition, those in lesbian
condition had a more favorable attitude toward the ad for Levi’s jeans (M=5.06) compared to the
body wash (M=3.96, F[1,102]=6.11, p<.05).
To assess WOM, a 2 (sexual orientation: gay versus lesbian) × 2 (product stereotype: less
versus more) ANOVA was conducted using WOM as the dependent variable. Findings reveal a
significant interaction between sexual orientation and product type on WOM (F[3,102]=6.88,
p<.001). Participants in the gay condition had a stronger WOM with the Dove body wash
(M=5.32) compared to the Levi’s jeans (M=4.26, F[1,102]=7.38, p<.01), while participants in
lesbian condition had a stronger WOM for Levi’s jeans (M=5.12) compared to the Dove body
wash (M=3.69, F[1,102]=12.61, p<.001).
Consistent with Study 2, a case of moderated mediation is proposed. The same analysis
was conducted using the SPSS macro designed by Preacher, Rucker and Hayes (2007; model 8).
First, the mediator model examined the effects of product type, sexual orientation, and
their interaction on model-product fit was predicted by product type. The significant interaction
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 24
(𝛽= -2.38, SE=.42; 95% CI: -.32, -.1.6) suggests that the direct effect of sexual orientation,
through model-product fit varies based on product type. The second mediator model examined
product type, sexual orientation, model-product fit, and the product type * sexual orientation
interactions as predictors of attitude toward the ad. This analysis revealed a significant effect of
model-product fit on attitude toward the ad (𝛽=.44, SE=.14; 95% CI: .12, .68) and a significant
interaction (𝛽= -1.65, SE=.69; 95% CI: -3.0, -.29). As expected, we find that model-product fit
depends on product type. Using the recommended bootstrapping technique for testing
conditional indirect effects, the results confirm success of moderated mediation (effect: -.96, SE .37, CI: -1.9, -3.6).
In sum, Study 3 results confirm a replication of the findings from Study 1 and Study 2.
These findings are discussed in more detail below.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Gays and lesbians are increasingly recognized by brands as a lucrative market that needs
to be advertised to beyond a few niche channels. Although prior research documents mainstream
consumers prefer ads that feature hetereosexual imagery, there is a need to identify when
heterosexual consumers are more accepting of explicit gay and lesbian imagery. Accordingly,
there is a need for research in this area.
The purpose of these studies was to examine how fit between explicit gay and lesbian
imagery and product type influenced mainstream (i.e., heterosexual) consumers’ evaluations of
ads. In an effort to extend the literature on gender and model-product fit, Study 1 examined
congruity theory by looking at consumer responses to ads featuring products consistent or
inconsistent with gay and lesbian stereotypes. Findings indicate participants had more positive
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 25
attitude toward the ad and greater intention to spread positive WOM when the product depicted
in the ad was more consistent with sexual orientation stereotype. This confirms prior work in the
congruity and “match-up” literature streams, and extends it by examining it in the context of
sexual orientation.
Study 2 sought to better understand the underlying mechanisms that help explain the
relationship between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the ad. Guided by
the match-up hypothesis and congruity theory, we predicted perceived model-product fit would
mediate the effect of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad. Specifically, we expected
product type to moderate the direct relationship of sexual orientation on attitude toward the ad,
the direct relationship of sexual orientation on model-product fit, and that the indirect
relationship between these two factors is mediated by model-product fit. Indeed, Study 2
confirmed this model of moderated mediation. Similar to previous studies examining how ad
attributes such as a celebrity endorser or brand-product congruity, these findings suggest that
explicit gay and lesbian imagery can result in positive evaluations of an ad when it is “fits”
within a consumers’ existing schemas. Prior research indicates consumers make congruence
judgments based on evaluations of the ad and consumer knowledge about advertising (i.e., ad
schema). Thus, our model of moderated mediation indicates when consumers view gay and
lesbian imagery in ads, both ad schema and sexual orientation schema influence their evaluation
of the ad. This is illustrated through the empirical findings demonstrating the importance modelproduct fit has on explaining consumer reactions to interplay of sexual orientation and product
type on attitude toward the ad.
Study 3 worked to expand the purview of this research by examining a similar set of
products using different brands. Findings confirmed the model of moderated mediation
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 26
hypothesized in Study 2 and also indicated participants had more positive attitudes and stronger
intention to spread positive WOM when exposed to ads featuring product more consistent with
gay and lesbian stereotypes. This study also suggests that the brand plays a role in understanding
consumer stereotypes about gays and lesbians.
Managerial Implications
The GLBT community continues to receive increasing recognition as a lucrative target
market. Prior research has noted when advertisers market directly to a GLBT target audience,
consumers in this market consider the brand to be supportive of the GLBT community and
human rights (Penaloza, 1996). Further, GLBT consumers are more likely to purchase from
brands that market directly to the audience (Harris Interactive). Considering a large proportion of
GLBT consumers do not subscribe to niche media that targets this population exclusively,
advertisers must use “mainstream” media to reach this valuable audience. However, how can
brands begin to advertise explicitly to this market without alienating others? This work suggests
that for some products one way to do so is incorporate explicit images of gay and lesbian models
in a way that is congruent with consumers’ existing schemas. For advertisers, it is important to
conduct strategic market research in order to identify potential opportunities for pairing products
with GLBT images in order to help build brand awareness and loyalty among this community.
In Studies 1 and 2, a kitchen cleaner was identified as the stereotype-consistent product
for lesbians. Despite prior research that indicates lesbians are associated with more masculine
stereotypes, a kitchen cleaner may be a product typically associated with domesticity and
traditional female roles. One possible reason for this is that lesbians tend to be presented as
highly sexualized and perceived as desirable to heterosexual men. Thus, it may be that lesbian
women are associated with a product related to more traditional female roles, mirroring the fact
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 27
that they are sexualized in a way common to all women depicted in ads. However, when
examining different brands in study 3, the product identified as more stereotype consistent
(Levi’s jeans) for lesbians was the same as that identified for heterosexual men. This is a pattern
more consistent with stereotypical archetypes of lesbians (i.e., masculinity or functional). These
findings highlight the complexity of stereotypes and suggests additional research is needed to
understand emerging attitudes and stereotypes about lesbians.
Additionally, the findings from this set of studies highlights the important role branding
plays in defining a particular product. In Studies 1 and 2, Calvin Klein jeans were identified as
more stereotype consistent for gay men (and heterosexual women), whereas in Study 3 Levi’s
jeans were found to be more stereotype consistent for lesbian women (and heterosexual men).
Jeans from both brands likely have many similarities in terms of cut, color, and style; yet the
brand image for Calvin Klein jeans tends to be sexy and fashion-forward, while Levi’s has a
history of being a more traditional and functional brand of jeans. Similarly, in Studies 1 and 2
Clorox kitchen cleaner was the product most consistent with lesbians, whereas in Study 3 Dove
body wash was identified as the product most consistent with gays. Perhaps the Clorox brand is
associated with being more masculine or functional, whereas Dove is perceived as being more
feminine.
These findings also suggest brands could begin to integrate more representations of gays
and lesbians in their ads. Currently, mainstream media seem to depict gay men more frequently
than lesbian women. Previous scholars posit this may be because the gay male target audience
tends to have a higher income than lesbian women. However, Study 2 found intention to spread
positive WOM was stronger for lesbian-congruent ads than gay-congruent ads. Thus, including
lesbian women in ads more frequently may lead to an increase in positive response from both
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 28
mainstream and GLBT consumers. Additionally, it may have a greater lasting impact on the
brand because consumer WOM is often considered more trustworthy than company generated
communication efforts.
Although the model-product congruent stereotypes discussed here may facilitate easier
cognitive processing and more positive evaluations of an ad, it is important that advertisers
remain mindful of the potentially harmful effects of relying heavily on stereotypes about
minority populations such as the GLBT community. It is important to include the voices of this
frequently marginalized population in the development of any ad that incorporates modelproduct congruent stereotypes. Engaging GLBT consumers in the copy and creative testing
processes can prevent the use of stereotypes based on clichés that could be perceived as
displaying a disregard for the diversity of identities and gender expression within the GLBT
community. Further, both scholars and advertising practitioners are increasingly encouraging the
use of ads to help reduce potentially harmful stereotypes (Collins, 2011; Gianatasio, 2013). For
example, the recent introduction of the Glass Lion award is an example of the industry’s
burgeoning efforts to address issues of gender inequality and prejudice. Additionally, consumer
interaction with digital media is helping advertisers better tailor their messages based on more
nuanced consumer insights rather than broad generalizations (Gianatasio, 2013).
Looking Ahead
This study was not without limitations. Although our aim was to examine stereotypes
specifically associated with sexual orientation, it is important to recognize that human identity is
complex and comprised of many facets. It is likely that some stereotypes may overlap with other
aspects of one’s identity and/or that certain identities (age, gender, physical appearance, etc.) and
the associated stereotypes may be more salient than others. Additionally, to better present clear
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 29
and concise findings, the current study explored ads with gay/lesbian couples and families in
separate studies. Subsequent studies should examine if consumers have different responses to
ads with couples versus families. Finally, much like other sub-populations in the US, the GLBT
community is diverse with various ethnicities, gender identities, and sexual orientations. Future
research should incorporate more diverse GLBT representation in their ads.
Gays and lesbians are increasingly recognized as an important and underserved market.
In addition, public sentiment towards gays and lesbians seems to be changing. Therefore, now,
more than ever, marketers and advertisers need to think more insightfully and creatively about
how to cater to this market, while attempting to further understand how mainstream heterosexual
consumers will respond to such ads.
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 30
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Figure 1a. Interaction between sexual orientation and product type on attitude toward the
ad
Attitude Toward the Ad 7 6 5 5.84 5.63 4.9 4.87 Gay Lesbian 4 3 Luxury Jeans Kitchen Cleaner Figure 1b. Interaction between sexual orientation and product type on positive word of
mouth
Positive WOM 7 6 5 4.8 4.66 5.45 Gay 4.3 Lesbian 4 3 Luxury Jeans Kitchen Cleaner Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 37
Figure. 2 Mediated-­‐Moderation Model Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research APPENDIX 1A: STUDY 1 ADS 38
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 39
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research APPENDIX 1B: STUDY 2 ADS 40
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 41
Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 42
APPENDIX 1C: STUDY 3 ADS Forthcoming in the Journal of Advertising Research 43