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100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR Tuesday, November 11, 2014 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR 1 SSFCU's first branch which opened in 1956 was located on Kelly Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. 2 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 An Overview of World War I O n the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of the year 1918, World War I came to an end. This date is called Armistice Day in commemoration of the peace that arrived after four years of conflict. In the United States November 11 is celebrated as Veterans Day, a day to honor the sacrifices of our veterans from all wars. The first global conflict to entangle dozens of nations throughout the world, the “Great War” pitted the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire against the Allied forces of Great Britain (as well as Dominion nations of the British Empire — Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and others), the United States, France, Russia, Italy and Japan. It was also called The War to End All Wars with the hope that the world would never again see this level of death and destruction in warfare. The introduction of modern technology to warfare resulted in unprecedented carnage and destruction. Over 9 million soldiers and 7 million civilians died and another 20 million were wounded by the time the war ended on November 11, 1918. As the 20th century entered its second decade, there was peace among the world’s most powerful nations, as threats of war could be averted by diplomatic compromise. All the great world powers were expanding their militaries with huge standing armies and modern technology that would grow to include machine guns, large cannons, high accuracy rifles, machine guns, powerful ships and submarines. The countries of Europe were increasingly hostile to each other. Countries developed powerful military alliances to establish a balance of power between them. The two key alliances were between France and Russia and between Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Austrian Empire was ruled by the Hapsburg Dynasty). There were other alliances between various nations. After the defeat of Napoleon and his French Empire in 1815, the system of alliances and efforts at compromise between rival nations were fairly successful in keeping the peace for a century. Despite increasing efforts to settle war through diplomacy, World War I erupted in July 1914. The war revealed the fragile nature of 20th century politics and showed how the powder keg of nationalism could result in enormous conflict and upheaval. One hundred years after the start of the war, it is important to reflect on the events, outcomes and legacies of this transformative era in world history. 0 Aftermath of the Battle of the Somme, July 1 - November 18, 1916: The badly shelled main road to Bapaume through Pozieres, showing a communication trench and broken trees. 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR A British government poster used during the First World War to promote the war effort. 3 How World War I started I t all began on June 28, 1914, when a young Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Taking place against a backdrop of escalating tensions in the Balkans, the assassination set off a chain of events that would lead to the start of World War I barely one month later. To many people, the Great War seemed to come out of the blue, as the European continent was enjoying a long stretch of unparalleled peace and prosperity. 0 Assassination of Franz Ferdinand Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, a great friend of Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, met with him in mid-June 1914 to discuss the tense situation in the Balkans. Two weeks later, on June 28, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, were in Sarajevo. When 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip and his fellow members of the nationalist Young Bosnia movement learned of the archduke’s planned visit, they took action. Princip and his cohorts traveled to Sarajevo in time for the archduke’s visit. The royal couple was touring the city in an open car, Gavrilo Princip, who with surprisingly little security. One of the nationalists assassinated the Austrian threw a bomb at their car, but it rolled off the back of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. vehicle, wounding an army officer and some bystanders. Later that day, the imperial car took a wrong turn near where Princip happened to be standing. Seeing his chance, Princip fired into the car, shooting Franz Ferdinand and Sophie at point-blank range. He then turned the gun on himself, but was tackled by a mob of bystanders who restrained him until the police arrived. The archduke and his wife were rushed away to seek medical attention, but both died within the hour. 0 Archduke Franz Ferdinand How World War I started Treaty Before World War 1 started, a series of defence alliances existed between many European countries. If one country declared war against another, other countries would be forced, by treaty, to enter the conflict. France, Britain and Ireland, and Russia formed an alliance known as the Triple Entente. Germany was allied with Austria-Hungry. They were known as the Central Powers. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated in Sarajevo on June 28,1914, it triggered a chain of events that resulted in World War 1. Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary, who blamed Serbia for the death of the Archduke, threatened war unless they agreed to a set of harsh demands. Germany sided with Austria-Hungary, and Russia backed Serbia. Europe was on the brink of war. Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, pre-1910 On July 28, one month after the Archduke’s assassination, Austria-Hungary (supported by Germany) declared war on Serbia. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and on August 3, Germany declared war on France. Both were killed by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. On August 4, German troops marched on France, taking a route through Belgium. Britain had agreed to guarantee Belgium’s neutrality, and immediately declared war on Germany. British and German forces clashed on August 23 at the Battle of Mons, which took place in Belgium. This was the first battle between the British and the Germans on the Western Front. 4 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 Right: Map of Europe’s alliances in 1915. Based on a map from William Shepard’s 1911 “Historical Atlas.’’ O n July 23, 1914, the Dual Monarchy sent an ultimatum to Serbia with such harsh terms as to make it almost impossible to accept. It required: •The Serbian government to take steps to wipe out terrorist organizations within its borders •Suppress anti-Austrian propaganda •Accept an independent investigation by the Austro-Hungarian government into Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, or else face military action. Convinced that Austria was readying for war, the Serbian government ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance. After Serbia’s appeal for help, the Russian Czar’s government began moving towards mobilization of its army, believing that Germany was using the crisis as an excuse to launch a preventive war in the Balkans. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On August 1, after hearing news of Russia’s general mobilization, Germany declared war on Russia. The German army then launched its attack on Russia’s ally, France, through Belgium, violating Belgian neutrality and bringing Great Britain into the war as well. The tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers collapsed. Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun. 0 Unfortunately, even being first cousins did not help these leaders solve the issues that led to World War I. King George V of Great Britain Tsar Nicholas II of Russia Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany Telegram from Russian Czar Nicholas II to his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, July 28, 1914 Baltic Sea Sea of Norway MILITARY ALLIANCES IN 1914 Ireland Great Britain Central Powers Allies Russia Germany Atlantic Ocean Spain ly Ita Portug al France Mediterranean Sea Austria Hungary Romania Black Sea Serbia Bulgaria Albania Turkey Greece The legendary Krupp’s Big Bertha, a German 42cm howitzer of the type used to crush the Belgian fortresses in 1914. 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR 5 World War I Western Front (1914-17) G Russia (1914-17) On the Eastern Front of World War I, Russian forces invaded East Prussia and German Poland (Galisia), but were stopped short by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August 1914. Tannenberg was a crushing defeat for Russia and the greatest German victory of the war. The Germans took 92,000 prisoners. The Russians lost another 30,000 killed or wounded, while the Germans sustained a total of only 13,000 casualties. Despite that victory, the Red Army assault had forced Germany to move two Army corps from the Western Front to the Eastern Front, contributing to the German loss in the Battle of the Marne. Combined with the fierce Allied resistance in France, the ability of Russia’s huge war machine to mobilize relatively quickly in the East ensured a longer, In the First Battle of the Marne, fought more grueling conflict instead of the in early September 1914, French and quick victory Germany had hoped to British forces confronted the invading win. Germany army, which had penetrated Over the next two years, the Russian deep into northeastern France, within army mounted several offensives on Tanks were initially called “landships.” However, in 30 miles of Paris. Under the French an attempt to disguise them as water storage tanks the Eastern Front but were unable to commander Joseph Joffre, the Allied rather than as weapons, the British decided to code break through German lines. Defeat troops checked the German advance name them “tanks.” on the battlefield fed the discontent and mounted a successful counteratamong Russia’s population, especially tack, driving the Germans back north the poverty-stricken workers and peasof the Aisne River. The defeat meant ants, feeding a growing hostility towards the imperial regime. the end of German plans for a quick victory in France. The This discontent culminated in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Allies called it the “Miracle on the Marnes.” Despite the spearheaded by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks. One of LeAllied victory, the battle was a costly one; the Allied forces nin’s first actions as leader was to call a halt to Russian parsuffered 263,000 casualties, and the Germans 220,000. Both ticipation in World War I. Russia reached an armistice with sides dug into trenches. German and French troops suffered the Central Powers in early December 1917, freeing German close to a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone. 0 troops to face the other Allies on the Western Front. 0 ermany began fighting World War I on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting mighty Russia in the east. On August 4, 1914, German troops under Erich Ludendorff crossed the border into Belgium, in violation of that country’s neutrality. In the first battle of World War I, the Germans assaulted the heavily fortified city of Liege, using the most powerful weapons in their arsenal – enormous siege cannons – to capture the city on August 15. Leaving death and destruction, including the shooting of civilians and the deliberate execution of Belgian priests, whom they accused of inciting civilian resistance, the Germans advanced through Belgium towards France. World War I’s Eastern Front And Revolution In Gallipoli Campaign (1915-16) and Battles of The Isonzo (1915-17) With World War I settled into a stalemate in Europe, the Allies attempted to score a victory against the Ottoman Empire, which had entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers in late 1914. After a failed attack on the Dardanelles (the strait linking the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean Sea), Allied forces led by Britain’s Winston Churchill launched a largescale land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915. The invasion also proved a dismal failure, and in January 1916 Allied forces were forced to stage a full retreat from the shores of the peninsula, after suffering up to 250,000 casualties. 0 German & Allied Forces 100 Day Offensive Fortifications of Verdun “What a bloodbath, what horrid images, what a slaughter. I just cannot find the words to express my feelings. Hell cannot be this dreadful.” — Albert Joubaire, French soldier at Verdun. 6 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 In the spring of 1918, Germany’s back was against the wall. The country was suffering from a British blockade of its ports, and it had lost so many men that the German army was recruiting old men and young boys to fight at the front lines. The arrival of thousands of fresh troops from the United States was paving the way for a certain Allied victory. The German high command knew the only way to win the war was to defeat the Allies with a major offensive before the Americans could be fully deployed. The plan was for a major push Human Cost of War Countries Total Total Troops Casualities * Allies Russia 12,000,000 9,150,000 France 8,410,000 6,160,800 British Empire 8,904,467 3,190,235 Italy 5,615,000 2,197,000 United States 4,355,000 323,018 Japan 800,000 1,210 Romania 750,000 535,706 Serbia 707,343 331,106 Belgium 267,000 93,061 Greece 230,000 17,000 Portugal 100,000 33,291 50,000 20,000 Montenegro Paul von Hindenburg was the German general who won the major German victory against Russia at the Battle of Tannenberg. This battle was at the very beginning of the war and the German army destroyed almost all of the Russian Second Army. British cartoon satire against the Somme front held by November 11, 1918, bringing the bloody battles of World tacks intended to divert Allied attention from the main push. The Germany 11,000,000 7,142,558 goal was to quickly break the Allied lines, crush the British army Austria-Hungary 7,800,000 7,020,000 and force the Allies to seek armistice terms. The Germans moved Turkey 2,850,000 975,000 so fast they were unable to transBulgaria 1,200,000 266,919 port enough supplies. The Allies eventually dug in and halted the Total 22,850,000 15,404,477 German advance. The Germans suffered 680,000 deaths, while Grand Total 65,038,810 37,456,904 the Allies lost a combined total of *Includes those who were killed or died, 850,000 men. The attack failed in wounded, prisoners and missing. its goal to break the Allied forces. The Germans were left in a weak position, having gained ground that they could not adequately defend and having lost most of their best troops trying to break the Allied lines. The Allies had the advantage of thousands of fresh troops from the United States under General John J. Pershing. The Allied supreme commander, Marshal Ferdinand Foch, decided that the Allies should go back on the offensive, and agreed to a plan to attack the weakened German Second Army at Amiens. The attack, known as the Battle of Amiens, was a success. The Allies launched another series of offensives, including the battles of Second Somme, Second Noyons and Second Arras. The German lines were eventually broken and the Germans were forced to retreat back to the Hindenburg Line, a series of defensive works protecting the German homeland. The Allies then started attacking the Line with a series of offensives. The weakened, exhausted Germans put up a fight, but were unable to defend the lines. The Allies broke through the Hindenburg Line at the Battle of Cambrai. The Germans eventually sued for peace, and the armistice was signed on ular success for the Allies, but they paid for it dearly. The Allies lost a total of 1,069,636 casualties, including 127,000 Americans. The Germans lost 785,733 casualties, but perhaps the greatest loss was the collapse of the German Empire. Total 42,188,810 22,052,427 the British, with three other at- War I to an end. The Hundred Days offensive was a spectac- Central Powers Credit: Justin Jurek, Adapted, www.toptenz.net World War I at Sea (1914-17) The German navy chose not to confront Britain’s mighty Royal Navy in a major battle for more than a year, preferring to base the bulk of its strategy at sea on its lethal submarines. Germany’s policy of unchecked submarine aggression against shipping interests headed to Great Britain ultimately helped bring the United States into World War I in 1917. 0 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR British war ship from World War I 7 A Timeline of World War I, June 2 Jun 28, 1914 Archduke Assassination Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo. His death is the event that sparks World War I. Jul 30, 1914 Russia Mobilizes Russia mobilizes its vast army to intervene against Austria-Hungary in favor of its ally, Serbia. This move starts a chain reaction that leads to the mobilization of the rest of the European Great Powers, and inevitably to the outbreak of hostilities. Russian poster from World War I0[ Aug 4, 1914 World War I Begins Germany invades Belgium, beginning World War I. Belgian soldiers march through the Menin Gate just months before the German invasion of Belgium in August 1914. The old medieval ‘gate’ was by this time merely a gap in the 17th century defensive ramparts of the town from which the road ran to the town. Apr 22, 1915 Germans Fire The Germans fire shells filled with chlorine gas at Allied lines. This is the first time that large amounts of gas are used in battle, and the result is the near-collapse of the French lines. However, the Germans are unable to take advantage of the breach. May 7, 1915 Lusitania Sinks A German submarine sinks the British passenger liner Lusitania. The ship carries 1,198 people, 128 of them Americans. Sep . 15, 1915 First Tanks The British employ the first tanks ever used in battle, at Delville Wood. Although they are useful at breaking through barbed wire and clearing a path for the infantry, tanks are still primitive and they fail to be the decisive weapon, as their designers thought they would be. Sep 18, 1915 Germany Limits Submarines Reacting to international outrage at the sinking of the Lusitania and other neutral passenger lines, Kaiser Wilhelm suspends unrestricted submarine warfare. This is an attempt to keep the United States out of the war, but it severely hampers German efforts to prevent American supplies from reaching France and Britain. Various gas masks used in WW1 A German WW1 submarine Feb 1, 1917 Submarines Back Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare in European waterways. This act, more than any other, draws the United States into the war and causes the eventual defeat of Germany. A WWI Recruitment poster, using a New York Herald cartoon by W.A. Rogers. Starting on Christmas Eve, many German and British troops sang Christmas carols to each other across the lines, and at certain points the Allied soldiers even heard brass bands joining the Germans in their joyous singing. At the first light of dawn on Christmas Day, some German soldiers emerged from their trenches and approached the Allied lines across no-man’s-land, calling out “Merry Christmas” in their enemies’ native tongues. At first, the Allied soldiers feared it was a trick, but seeing the Germans unarmed they climbed out of their trenches and shook hands with the enemy soldiers. The men exchanged presents of cigarettes and plum puddings and sang carols and songs. Soldiers from opposing sides played a good-natured game of soccer. The following Christmas, both sides had orders to shoot any soldier who did this. Canadian poster, 1914-1918. 8 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 Apr 2, 1917 Wilson For War President Wilson outlines his case for war to Congress. Ironically, Wilson had been elected as a peace candidate. "Sergeant" Stubb Christmas Truce of 1914 German and British troops get together for Christmas in 1914 Feb 25, 1917 Zimmerman Telegram British intelligence gives Wilson a message from the German foreign secretary proposing that Mexico side with Germany in case of war with the United States. Germany promises to return to Mexico the "lost provinces" of Texas American Southwest. Mexico declines the offer, but the outrage at this interference in the Western Hemisphere pushes American public opinion to support entering the war. Although dogs were h was reluctant to use use of a few hundr but did not employ as European countr terrier cross affectio crowning glory of the Stubby remained w Division, known as present at many ba number of injuries, i gas attacks. It is sa admired that he was human soldiers were Having survived ga attacks, he becam very sensitive to th smell of gas, and wit his sensitive dog nos was able to detect ga much earlier than h human comrades an alert them in time. H acute doggy hearin allowed him th advantage of hearin even the quiete sounds from advanci enemy, and so Stu alerting his comrade was near. His major spy who had tried to 28, 1914, through November 11, 1919 Apr 6, 1917 U.S. Enters War Congress authorizes a declaration of war against Germany. The United States enters World War I on the side of France and Britain. May 18, 1917 Selective Service Act Congress passes the Selective Service Act authorizing the draft. Although criticized for destroying democracy at home while fighting for it abroad, President Wilson claims he sees no other option and signs the bill into law. US recruitment poster from World War I by, Military Dog Mar 3, 1918 Germany and Russia Peace The Germans sign a peace treaty with the new Bolshevik government of Russia. The terms of the treaty give Germany huge tracts of land and peace on the Eastern Front allows Germany to shift soldiers to the Western Front, causing serious problems for the French, British, and Americans. Signing of armistice between Russia and Germany highly utilized in Europe, America e dogs in World War I. It did make red that belonged to the Allies, nearly the same number of dogs ries did. However, one dog, a bull onately named Stubby became the e U.S. army. with the 102nd Infantry, 26th s the Yankee division. He was attles. Over time, he survived a including those from shrapnel and aid he became so well known and s treated in Red Cross hospitals, as e. as me he th se, as his nd His ng he ng est Stubby ing ubby proved excellent at silently es when he could hear the enemy r triumph was hearing a German o sneak into camp during the dead May 28, 1918 Battle of Cantigny The Battle of Cantigny is the first major American offensive of the war. Though small in scale, the Americans fight bravely and soon go on to larger attacks against German positions. The explosion of the German mine beneath Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt by British forces on July 1, 1916. (Photo by Ernest Brooks) Jun 3, 1918 Chateau-Thierry The Americans attack the Germans at Chateau-Thierry. This battle would morph into the larger Battle of Belleau Wood. A Marine bulldog chases a German dachshund, taking advantage of the German nickname for Marines as "Devil Dogs". Jun 6, 1918 Battle of Belleau Wood The Battle of Belleau Wood begins as the U.S. Marine Corps, along with British and French troops, attacks the Germans across an open field of wheat, suffering huge casualties, now part of the lore of the US Marine Corps. Jun 26, 1918 Belleau Wood Ends It ends with the final expulsion of the Germans from the wood, which marks the farthest German advance on Paris. The area has changed hands six times during the three-week battle, which has caused nearly 10,000 American casualties. Sep 12, 1918 Battle of St. Mihiel The Battle of St. Mihiel begins when 300,000 American troops under the direct command of General Pershing fling themselves into the German lines. Nov 9, 1918 Wilhelm Abdicates Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates, ending all German hope for a victory. He and his retinue quietly slip over the border into the Netherlands where he lives out the remainder of his life in relative peace and writes a self-promoting memoir defending his actions in the war. Nov 11, 1919 Armistice Day An Armistice is signed ending fighting on the Western Front. The Ingordo—too hard. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany caricatured trying to eat the world, but finds it "too hard." Georges Scott illustration "American Marines in Belleau Wood (1918)" of night. The loyal and diligent Stubby managed to grab the intruder’s leg and immobilize him until troops came to investigate and imprison the German. He also asserted himself as a ‘mercy’ dog, scanning the battlefields for injured soldiers and comforting them whilst they lay dying or alerting paramedics to the wounded. 0 Cher Ami, World War I Carrier Pigeon “Cher Ami” was a registered Black Check Cock carrier pigeon, one of 600 birds owned and flown by the U.S. Army Signal Corps in France during World War I. Although radio had been invented, small radios for communications by soldiers on the battlefield had not. Pigeons carried important battlefield information to the military headquarters. Cher Ami became a celebrity, especially to the 194 soldiers who survived an incident which they were trapped behind enemy lines and the Germans shot down the pigeon. They nursed him back to health and he was eventually awarded the French Croix de Guerre (Cross of War). Cher Ami died as a result of his wounds in New Jersey on June 13, Cher Ami 1919. He’s a member of the Racing Pigeon Hall of Fame and his stuffed body (pictured above) is on display at the American Museum of Natural History. 0 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR American troops pouring into St. Mihiel on the morning of September 12, 1918. In 1919, the 369th infantry regiment marched home triumphantly from World War I. They had spent more time in combat than any other American unit, never losing a foot of ground to the enemy, or a man to capture and winning countless decorations. During World War I, 380,000 African Americans served in the wartime Army. Approximately 200,000 of them were sent to Europe. More than half of those sent abroad were assigned to labor and stevedore battalions, but they performed essential duties nonetheless, building roads, bridges and trenches in support of the front-line battles. Roughly 42,000 saw combat. Though they returned as heroes, this African American unit faced tremendous discrimination, even from their own government. The Harlem Hellfighters, as the Germans called them, fought courageously on and off the battlefield to make Europe and America, safe for democracy. In THE HARLEM HELLFIGHTERS, bestselling author Max Brooks and acclaimed illustrator Caanan White bring this history to life. From the enlistment lines in Harlem to the training camp at Spartanburg, South Carolina, to the trenches in France, they tell the heroic story of the 369th in an actionpacked and powerful tale of honor and heart. 9 Women and the War W hen the United States entered the European War on April 6, 1917, it marked the first time in the history of the country that regular Army and Navy military nurses served overseas — although without rank — and it was also the first time, women who were not nurses were allowed to enlist in the Navy and Marine Corps. A handful of women also served in the Coast Guard. The U.S. Army, however, refused to enlist women officially, relying on them as contract employees and civilian volunteers. Negative public opinion and hesitant military leaders limited women’s roles, but the country needed their skills to pursue the war effort and to move male soldiers out of office jobs and onto the battlefield. By the end of World War I, American military women had served stateside and overseas on the eastern and western war fronts. Over 230 bilingual civilian telephone operators working with the Army were organized and trained by AT&T and took the same oath of allegiance as male soldiers. Dubbed the “Hello Girls,” they maintained communications in many places in France, sometimes working under combat conditions. U.S. Army General John J. Pershing U.S. Army General John J. Pershing (1860-1948) commanded the American Forces in Europe during World War I. Credit: Courtesy of the United States Army From the outset of World War I, long before American troops arrived on foreign soil, American women were “over British poster there,” volunteering with civilian organizations to provide nursing, transportation and other war relief services. Women aligned themselves with humanitarian organizations such as the American Red Cross, YMCA, Salvation Army and others to meet wartime needs. Military nurses arrived in Europe before the American Expeditionary Forces. At the outset of World War I, 403 women were on active duty in the Army Nurse Corps, founded in 1901. By Armistice Day on November 11, 1918, 21,480 nurses had enlisted and over 10,000 had served overseas. They served with distinction: three were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, 23 received the Distinguished Service Medal, and numerous nurses received meritorious awards from allied nations. Several were wounded; more than 200 died while serving. "Make Every Minute Count For Pershing." Poster art painted by Adolph Treidler around 1917 War service was hard, uncomfortable and heartbreaking. The nurses treated shrapnel wounds, infections, mustard gas burns plus medical and emotional trauma. Dealing with amputations was a daily event. World War I marked a new era in women’s movement from the home and into the public sphere. Their call to service by the military establishment was hesitant, limited and unequal in treatment and benefits. Yet they went to war anyway. Canadian poster 10 But when the call came for service in World War II, women’s successful participation in World War I was an important precedent for expanding roles of American women in the military and for developing the military establishment’s acceptance of women’s service in the U.S. Armed Forces. 0 Source: www.womensmemorial.org Tuesday, November 11, 2014 "The Ships Are Coming" Poster art painted by James Henry Daughetry around 1917 Lusitania The United States Enters the Great War On May 7, 1915, less than a year after World War I (1914-18) erupted across Europe, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the RMS Lusitania, a British ocean liner en route from New York to Liverpool, England. Of the more than 1,900 passengers and crewmembers on board, more than 1,100 perished, including more than 120 Americans. Nearly two years would pass before the United States formally entered World War I, but the sinking of the Lusitania played a significant role in turning public opinion against Germany, both in the United States and abroad. 0 Prelude To Lusitania: Germany Announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) pledged neutrality for the United States, a position that the vast majority of Americans favored. Britain was one of America’s closest trading partners, and tension soon arose between the United States and Germany over Germany's attempted quarantine of the British Isles. Several U.S. ships traveling to Britain were damaged or sunk by German mines, and in February 1915, Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters around Britain. In early May 1915, several New York newspapers published a warning by the German Embassy in Washington, D.C., that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. The announcement was placed on the same page as an advertisement of the sailing of the Lusitania liner from New York back to Liverpool. The sinking of merchant ships off the south coast of Ireland prompted the British Admiralty to warn the Lusitania, a British ocean liner, to avoid the area or take simple evasive action, such as zigzagging to confuse submarines plotting the vessel’s course. 0 The Lusitania Sinks The captain of the Lusitania ignored the British Admiralty’s recommendations, and at 2:12 p.m. on May 7,1915, the 32,000-ton ship was hit by an exploding torpedo fired from a German submarine on its right side. A larger explosion, probably of the ship’s boilers, followed the torpedo blast and the ship sank off the south coast of Ireland in less than 20 minutes. It was revealed that the Lusitania was carrying about 173 tons of war munitions for Britain, which the Germans cited as further justification for the attack. The United States eventually protested the action, and Germany apologized and pledged to end unrestricted submarine warfare. However, in November of that same year a submarine sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing more than 270 people, including more than 25 Americans. Public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany.0 America Enters World War I Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States. Opposition to Entering the War There were many groups opposed to the United States entering the war. Many felt it was a European War and the U.S. should stay isolated from it. Progressives thought it was a war wrought by the ruling classes, but was being fought by the working class. U.S. citizens of German descent, the largest immigrant group in America, were naturally opposed to fighting against their homeland. Conscientious objectors were against war under any circumstance. Even President Woodrow Wilson campaigned on an anti-war platform. The Democrats built his 1916 reelection campaign around the slogan, “He Kept Us out of War.” Wilson won by a very narrow margin. On January 31, 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced it would resume unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters. Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after that, the American ship Housatonic was sunk by a German submarine. On February 22, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. In late March, Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2 President Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany. On April 4, the Senate voted to declare war against Germany, and two days later the House of Representatives endorsed the dec- Woman marching with laration. With that, America en- peace sign and U.S. flag, disarmament tered World War I. 0 Submarine Sinking Ship by Willy Stover, German Marine Painter, 1917. 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR conference, Washington, D.C. between 1914 and 1922. 11 Men, exasperated and afraid of these rats (which would even scamper across their faces in the dark), would attempt to rid the trenches of them by various methods: gunfire, with the bayonet, and even by clubbing he Great War, a phrase coined even before them to death. it had begun, was expected to be a relatively short affair and, as with most wars, one of It was futile. A single rat couple could produce great movement. The war began with sweeping up to 900 offspring in a year, spreading infecadvances by the Germans through Belgium and tion and contaminating food. The rat problem France en route for Paris. However stalemate remained for the duration of the war. 0 — and trench warfare soon set in — and the expected war of movement wasn’t restored until Lice, Frogs and Trench Foot towards the close of the war. Life in the Trenches T The trench network of World War I stretched approximately 25,000 miles from the English Channel to Switzerland. The area was known as the Western Front. British poet Siegfried Sassoon wrote, “When all is done and said, the war was mainly a matter of holes and ditches.” 0 Daily Death in the Trenches Death was a constant companion to those serving in the line. In busy sectors the constant shellfire directed by the enemy brought random death, whether the victims were lounging in a trench or lying in a dugout. Similarly, young soldiers were warned against their natural inclination to peer over the top of the trench into No Man’s Land. Many men died on their first day in the trenches as a consequence of a sniper’s bullet. "I saw men dead from exhaustion from their efforts to get out of the mud... We were pitchforked into a quagmire in the dark and there was no possibility of a man helping the one next to him... It was the worst instance I came across of what appeared to be a cruel useless sacrifice of life." Lice were a never-ending problem, breeding in the seams of filthy clothing and causing men to itch unceasingly. Even when clothing was periodically washed and deloused, lice eggs invariably remained hidden in the seams. Within a few hours of the clothes being re-worn, the body heat would cause the eggs to hatch. Lice caused Trench Fever, a particularly painful disease that began suddenly with severe pain followed by high fever. Recovery, away from the trenches, took up to twelve weeks. Lice were not actually identified as the culprit in Trench Fever until 1918. Frogs by the score were found in shell holes covered in water; they were also found in the base of trenches. Slugs and horned beetles crowded the sides of the trench. Rats in the millions infested trenches. The brown rat was especially feared. Gorging themselves on human remains that could not be retrieved from the battlefield, they could grow to the size of a cat. 12 Soldier in a trench taking a photograph with a camera attached to a periscope. Many men chose to shave their heads entirely to avoid another prevalent scourge: head lice. Food for soldiers in the trenches during World War I was at times considered a luxury. Getting decent hot food from the field kitchens to the front line trenches — L.W. Kentish, British officer could be impossible when a battle was either imminent or in full flow. When soldiers were at standIt is estimated nearly a third of Allied casual- down, food was easier to acquire and ties on the Western Front were sustained in the both British and German troops could trenches. Aside from enemy injuries, disease expect certain food to be available with a degree of frequency. took a heavy toll. 0 Rat Infestation Soldiers slept and rested in the trenches. Canadian soldiers in a trench, in 1916 German trenches were in stark contrast to British trenches. German trenches were built to last and included bunk beds, furniture, cupboards, water tanks with faucets, electric lights and doorbells. 0 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 A German trench occupied by British Soldiers, July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The Bolshevik Revolution & the Treaty An armistice was reached in early December 1917 and a formal cease-fire was declared of Brest-Litovsk December 15, but determining the terms of peace between Russia and the Central Powers proved to be far more complicated. Negotiations began at Brest-Litovsk on December 22. Postcard showing German trenches Russia’s involvement in World War I alongside its allies, France and Britain, had resulted in a number of heavy losses against Germany. Defeat on the battlefield fed the growing discontent among the bulk of Russia’s population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants, and hostility toward the imperial regime, led by the ineffectual Czar Nicholas II (1868-1918). This discontent strengthened the cause of the Bolsheviks, a radical socialist group led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) that was working to harness opposition to the czar and turn it into a sweeping revolution that would begin in Russia and later, Lenin hoped, spread to the rest of the world. In mid-February, the talks broke down when an angry Leon Trotsky of Russia deemed the Central Powers’ terms too harsh and their demands for territory unacceptable. Fighting resumed briefly on the Eastern Front, but the German armies advanced quickly, and Russia soon realized that in its weakened state, it would be forced to give in to the enemy terms. Negotiations resumed later that month and the final treaty was signed on March 3, 1918. By the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia and Finland; gave up Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to Germany and AustriaHungary; and ceded Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey. The total losses constituted some 1 million square miles of Russia’s former territory; a third of its population or around 55 million people; a majority of its coal, oil and iron stores; and much of its industry. The February Revolution broke out in early March 1917. Nicholas abdicated later that month. After Lenin’s return from exile (aided by the Germans) in mid-April, he and his fellow Bolsheviks worked quickly to seize power from the provisional government. In early November, aided by the Russian military, they were successful. One of Lenin’s first actions as leader was to call a halt to Russian participation in the war. 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR Vladimir Lenin Lenin bitterly called Treaty of Brest-Litovsk “that abyss of defeat, dismemberment, enslavement and humiliation.” Russian Revolutionary Poster, "Mount your horses, workers and peasants! The treaty ended Russia’s involvement in World War I. 0 Left: In 1920, Dmitry Moor designed a striking poster that featured a drawing of Trotsky holding a bayonet and standing, larger than life, on Russian territory. A Soviet propaganda poster featuring Vladimir Lenin 13 The War in the Air Britain’s most famous bomber, the Handley-Page O/400, could carry a bomb load of 2000 lbs at a top speed of 97 mph for flights lasting eight hours. Two hen Archduke Ferdinand was assassi- 360 hp engines powered it. nated on the 28th of June 1914, just a decade had passed since the Wright In 1914, it was important that airplanes be easy to fly, as pilots received minimal training. Louis Strange, an innovative pilot from the opening brothers’ first flight at Kitty Hawk, NC. stages of the war, was an early graduate of the Royal Flying Corps flight In 1911 the Italians, at war with Turkey in Libya, school. He began flying combat missions after completing only three-and-abecame the first to make military use of the half hours of actual flying time. For this reason, airplanes were designed for airplane, dropping grenades from a German-built stability. By the end of the war, stability had given way to maneuverability. monoplane. In 1912 they also dropped bombs from The famous Sopwith Camel was a difficult airplanes to fly, but supremely agile. an airship. W Not only did airplanes become faster, more maneuverable and more powerful, but a number of technologies that were common at the start of the war had almost disappeared by the end of it. Many of the airplanes in 1914 were of “pusher” layout. This is the same configuration that the Wright brothers used, where the propeller faced backwards and pushed the airplanes forward. When war broke out, the number of airplanes on all sides and all fronts was very small. France had less than 200 airplanes at the start of the war. During the war France produced 68,000 airplanes of which 52,000 were lost in battle, a horrendous loss rate of 77%. The period between 1914 and 1918 saw not only tremendous production, but also tremendous development in airplanes technology. The alternative layout, where the propeller faces forwards and pulls the airplanes, provided better performance. World War I marked the end of pusher airplanes. The rapid pace of technological innovation was matched by a rapid change in how airplanes were used. In 1914, there were few generals who viewed airplanes as anything more than a tool for observation. By the end of the war, both sides were using them as a key part of their planned strategies. 0 A typical British airplanes at the outbreak of the Credit: www.firstworldwar.com war was the general purpose BE2c, with a top During WWI, American hamburgers speed of 72 mph. Powered by a 90 hp engine, it (named after the German city of could remain aloft for over three hours. By the end Hamburg) were renamed Salisbury of the war, airplanes were designed for specific steak. Frankfurters, which were tasks. Built for speed and maneuverability, the named after Frankfurt, Germany, were called “liberty sausages," and SE5a fighter of 1917 was powered by a 200 hp dachshunds became “liberty dogs.” engine and had a top speed of 138 mph. Pilots fired their machine guns by hand while also flying the plane. Lamberhurst, a late production Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 built by the Siddeley-Deasy Motor Company. 14 Tuesday, November 11, 2014 Recruitment poster from 1917, in the collection at Library of Congress. Weapons of War: Poison Gas C onsidered uncivilized before World War I, the development and use of poison gas was made necessary by the requirement of wartime armies to find new ways of ending the stalemate of unexpected trench warfare. Although it is popularly believed that the German army was the first to use gas, the French initially deployed it. In the first month of the war, August 1914, they fired tear-gas grenades against the Germans. But it was the German army that seriously studied development of chemical weapons for large-scale use. In the capture of Neuve Chapelle in October 1914, the German army fired shells at the French that contained a chemical irritant that induced a violent fit of sneezing. Three months later, on January 31, 1915, the Germans employed tear gas for the first time on the Eastern Front. troops noticed a curious yellow-green cloud drifting slowly towards their line. The French suspected that the cloud masked an advance by German infantry and ordered their men to ‘stand to’ — mount the trench fire step in readiness for probable attack. The effects of the chlorine gas were severe. Within seconds of inhaling it, the victim’s respiratory organs were destroyed. Panicstricken, the French and Algerian troops fled, creating a four-mile gap in the Allied line. The Germans’ use of chlorine gas provoked immediate widespread condemnation, and damaged German relations with the neutral powers, including the U.S. The attacks also fueled propaganda campaigns against Germany. British machine gun crew wearing gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, July 1916. Introduction of Poison Gas The first poison gas, chlorine was used April 22, 1915 at the start of the Second Battle of Ypres. After a bombardment, French and Algerian British propaganda postcard, entitled "The End of the 'Baby-Killer,'" created: December 31, 1915. Once the Allies recovered from the initial shock of the Germans’ practical application of poison gas warfare, they were determined to get revenge. The British were the first to respond. They were not allowed to refer to the word “gas” in their operations, due to the stigma attached to its use. They referred to their gas canisters as “accessories”; use of the word “gas” brought the threat of punishment. Publisher: Poster issued by the South Australian Government, 1915. On the evening of September 24, 1915, 400 chlorine gas canisters were established among the British front line around Loos. The gas was released by turning a cock on each cylinder. The retaliatory attack began the following morning at 5:20 a.m. A mixture of smoke and chlorine gas was released intermittently over a period of about 40 minutes before the infantry assault began. British troops blinded by tear gas wait for treatment at an Advanced Dressing Station during the Battle of Estaires, April 10, 1918. The wind shifted and quantities of the smoke and gas were blown back into the British trenches. It has been estimated that more British gas casualties were suffered than German. 0 100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR Austrian Poster. 15 The End of World War I With Germany able to build up its strength on the Western Front after the armistice with Russia, Allied troops struggled to hold off another German offensive until promised reinforcements from the United States could arrive. On July 15, 1918, German troops launched what would become the last German attack of the war, attacking French forces (joined by 85,000 American troops as well as some of the British Expeditionary Force) in the Second Battle of the Marne. Thanks to the strategic leadership of the French, the Allies pushed back the German offensive and launched their own counteroffensive just three days later. After suffering massive casualties, Germany was forced to call off a planned offensive further north, in the Flanders region stretching between France and Belgium, which was Germany’s best hope of victory. The final Allied push toward the German border began on October 17, 1918. As the British, French and American armies advanced, the alliance between the Central Powers began to collapse. Turkey signed an armistice at the end of October; Austria-Hungary followed on November 3. Germany began to crumble from within. Faced with the prospect of returning to sea, the sailors of the High Seas Fleet stationed at Kiel mutinied on October 29. Within a few days, the entire city was in their control and the revolution spread throughout the country. On November 9, the Kaiser abdicated and slipped across the border into the Netherlands and exile. A German Republic was declared and peace feelers extended to the Allies. At 5:10 a.m. on the morning of November 11 a peace agreement was signed in a railroad car parked in a French forest near the front lines. The terms of the agreement called for the end of fighting along the entire Western Front to begin at precisely 11 a.m. that morning. After over four years of bloody conflict, the Great War was at an end. 0 Much of Europe was destroyed during World War I This educational section from the Deseret News¹ Newspapers in Education program was designed by Amy O¹Donnell. The project was under the direction of Cindy Richards, Desert News Newspapers in Education director, with special thanks to Gregory Reed, vice president, Member Services and Jenn Earles, branch marketing and community relations manager of Security Service Federal Credit Union. CREDITS: cover image: America WWI Poster,published 1918. Photos and historic posters featured are in the public domain. Some content provided by History.com World War I’s Legacy World War I took the lives of more than 10 million soldiers and 7 million civilians and another 20 million were wounded. Millions of other people fell victim to the Spanish influenza epidemic that the war helped to spread. The two nations most affected were Germany and France, each of which sent about 80 percent of their male populations between the ages of 15 and 49 into battle. The war also marked the fall of four imperial dynasties: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey. At the peace conference in Paris in 1919, Allied leaders would state their desire to build a post-war world that would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such devastating scale. The Versailles Treaty, signed on June 28, 1919, would not achieve this goal. Saddled with war guilt and and denied entrance into the League of Nations, Germany felt tricked into signing the treaty, having believed any peace would be a “peace without victory” as put forward by President Woodrow Wilson in his famous Fourteen Points speech of January 1918. As the years passed, hatred of the Versailles Treaty and its authors settled into resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be among the causes of World War II. 0 16 Tuesday, November 11, 2014