Download 100years ago the world was at war

100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
Tuesday, November 11, 2014
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
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SSFCU's first branch which opened in 1956 was
located on Kelly Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas.
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Tuesday, November 11, 2014
An Overview of World War I
O
n the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of the year 1918, World War I came to an end. This date is
called Armistice Day in commemoration of the peace that arrived after four years of conflict. In the United States
November 11 is celebrated as Veterans Day, a day to honor the sacrifices of our veterans from all wars. The first
global conflict to entangle dozens of nations throughout the world, the “Great War” pitted the Central Powers of Germany,
Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire against the Allied forces of Great Britain (as well as Dominion nations of the
British Empire — Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and others), the United States, France, Russia, Italy and Japan.
It was also called The War to End All Wars with the hope that the world would never again see this level of death and
destruction in warfare.
The introduction of modern technology to warfare resulted in unprecedented carnage and destruction. Over 9 million
soldiers and 7 million civilians died and another 20 million were wounded by the time the war ended on November 11,
1918.
As the 20th century entered its second decade, there was peace among the world’s most powerful nations, as threats of war
could be averted by diplomatic compromise. All the great world powers were expanding their militaries with huge standing armies and modern technology that would grow to include machine guns, large cannons, high accuracy rifles, machine
guns, powerful ships and submarines.
The countries of Europe were increasingly hostile to each other. Countries developed powerful military alliances to establish a balance of power between them. The two key alliances were between France and Russia and between Germany
and Austria-Hungary (the Austrian Empire was ruled by the Hapsburg Dynasty). There were other alliances between
various nations.
After the defeat of Napoleon and his French Empire in 1815, the system of alliances and efforts at compromise between
rival nations were fairly successful in keeping the peace for a century.
Despite increasing efforts to settle war through diplomacy, World War I erupted in July 1914. The war revealed the fragile nature of 20th century politics and showed how the powder keg of nationalism could result in enormous conflict and
upheaval. One hundred years after the start of the war, it is important to reflect on the events, outcomes and legacies
of this transformative era in world history. 0
Aftermath of the Battle of the Somme, July 1 - November 18, 1916: The badly shelled main road to
Bapaume through Pozieres, showing a communication trench and broken trees.
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
A British government poster used during the First
World War to promote the war effort.
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How World War I started
I
t all began on June 28, 1914, when a young Serbian nationalist named
Gavrilo Princip killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of
the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Taking place against a
backdrop of escalating tensions in the Balkans, the assassination set off a chain
of events that would lead to the start of World War I barely one month later. To
many people, the Great War seemed to come out of the blue, as the European
continent was enjoying a long stretch of unparalleled peace and prosperity. 0
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, a great
friend of Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, met with
him in mid-June 1914 to discuss the tense situation
in the Balkans. Two weeks later, on June 28, Franz
Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, were in Sarajevo. When
19-year-old Gavrilo Princip and his fellow members of
the nationalist Young Bosnia movement learned of the
archduke’s planned visit, they took action. Princip and
his cohorts traveled to Sarajevo in time for the archduke’s visit.
The royal couple was touring the city in an open car,
Gavrilo Princip, who
with surprisingly little security. One of the nationalists
assassinated the Austrian
threw a bomb at their car, but it rolled off the back of the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
and his wife.
vehicle, wounding an army officer and some bystanders.
Later that day, the imperial car took a wrong turn near
where Princip happened to be standing. Seeing his
chance, Princip fired into the car, shooting Franz Ferdinand and Sophie at
point-blank range. He then turned the gun on himself, but was tackled by a mob
of bystanders who restrained him until the police arrived. The archduke and his
wife were rushed away to seek medical attention, but both died within the hour. 0
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
How World War I started
Treaty
Before World War 1 started, a series of defence alliances existed between many
European countries. If one country declared war against another, other countries would
be forced, by treaty, to enter the conflict.
France, Britain and Ireland, and Russia formed an alliance known as the Triple Entente.
Germany was allied with Austria-Hungry. They were known as the Central Powers.
When Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was
assassinated in Sarajevo on June 28,1914, it triggered a chain of events that resulted in
World War 1.
Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary, who blamed Serbia for the death of the
Archduke, threatened war unless they agreed to a set of harsh demands.
Germany sided with Austria-Hungary, and Russia backed Serbia. Europe was on the brink
of war.
Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, pre-1910
On July 28, one month after the Archduke’s assassination, Austria-Hungary (supported by
Germany) declared war on Serbia. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and
on August 3, Germany declared war on France.
Both were killed by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip.
On August 4, German troops marched on France, taking a route through Belgium. Britain
had agreed to guarantee Belgium’s neutrality, and immediately declared war on
Germany.
British and German forces clashed on August 23 at the Battle of Mons, which took place
in Belgium. This was the first battle between the British and the Germans on the Western
Front.
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Tuesday, November 11, 2014
Right: Map of Europe’s alliances
in 1915. Based on a map from
William Shepard’s 1911 “Historical
Atlas.’’
O
n July 23, 1914, the Dual Monarchy sent an ultimatum to Serbia
with such harsh terms as to make it almost impossible to accept. It
required:
•The Serbian government to take steps to wipe out terrorist
organizations within its borders
•Suppress anti-Austrian propaganda
•Accept an independent investigation by the Austro-Hungarian
government into Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, or else face
military action.
Convinced that Austria was readying for war, the Serbian government
ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance.
After Serbia’s appeal for help, the Russian Czar’s government began moving
towards mobilization of its army, believing that
Germany was using the crisis as an excuse to
launch a preventive war in the Balkans. On
July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war
on Serbia. On August 1, after hearing news of
Russia’s general mobilization, Germany declared
war on Russia. The German army then launched
its attack on Russia’s ally, France, through
Belgium, violating Belgian neutrality and
bringing Great Britain into the war as well. The
tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers
collapsed. Within a week, Russia, Belgium,
France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up
against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and
World War I had begun. 0
Unfortunately, even
being first cousins
did not help these
leaders solve the
issues that led to
World War I.
King George V of Great Britain
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany
Telegram from Russian Czar Nicholas II to his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm II
of Germany, July 28, 1914
Baltic
Sea
Sea of Norway
MILITARY ALLIANCES
IN 1914
Ireland
Great
Britain
Central Powers
Allies
Russia
Germany
Atlantic Ocean
Spain
ly
Ita
Portug
al
France
Mediterranean Sea
Austria
Hungary
Romania Black Sea
Serbia
Bulgaria
Albania
Turkey
Greece
The legendary Krupp’s Big Bertha, a German 42cm howitzer of the
type used to crush the Belgian fortresses in 1914.
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
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World War I Western Front (1914-17)
G
Russia (1914-17)
On the Eastern Front of World War I, Russian forces invaded
East Prussia and German Poland (Galisia), but were stopped
short by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August 1914. Tannenberg was a crushing defeat
for Russia and the greatest German victory of the war. The
Germans took 92,000 prisoners. The Russians lost another
30,000 killed or wounded, while the Germans sustained a total
of only 13,000 casualties.
Despite that victory, the Red Army assault had forced Germany to move two
Army corps from the Western Front to
the Eastern Front, contributing to the
German loss in the Battle of the Marne.
Combined with the fierce Allied resistance in France, the ability of Russia’s
huge war machine to mobilize relatively quickly in the East ensured a longer,
In the First Battle of the Marne, fought
more grueling conflict instead of the
in early September 1914, French and
quick victory Germany had hoped to
British forces confronted the invading
win.
Germany army, which had penetrated
Over the next two years, the Russian
deep into northeastern France, within
army mounted several offensives on
Tanks
were
initially
called
“landships.”
However,
in
30 miles of Paris. Under the French
an
attempt
to
disguise
them
as
water
storage
tanks
the Eastern Front but were unable to
commander Joseph Joffre, the Allied
rather than as weapons, the British decided to code
break through German lines. Defeat
troops checked the German advance
name them “tanks.”
on the battlefield fed the discontent
and mounted a successful counteratamong Russia’s population, especially
tack, driving the Germans back north
the poverty-stricken workers and peasof the Aisne River. The defeat meant
ants,
feeding
a
growing
hostility towards the imperial regime.
the end of German plans for a quick victory in France. The
This
discontent
culminated
in the Russian Revolution of 1917,
Allies called it the “Miracle on the Marnes.” Despite the
spearheaded
by
Vladimir
Lenin
and the Bolsheviks. One of LeAllied victory, the battle was a costly one; the Allied forces
nin’s
first
actions
as
leader
was
to call a halt to Russian parsuffered 263,000 casualties, and the Germans 220,000. Both
ticipation
in
World
War
I.
Russia
reached an armistice with
sides dug into trenches. German and French troops suffered
the
Central
Powers
in
early
December
1917, freeing German
close to a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone. 0
troops to face the other Allies on the Western Front. 0
ermany began fighting World War I on two fronts,
invading France through neutral Belgium in the west
and confronting mighty Russia in the east. On August
4, 1914, German troops under Erich Ludendorff crossed the
border into Belgium, in violation of that country’s neutrality.
In the first battle of World War I, the Germans assaulted the
heavily fortified city of Liege, using the most powerful weapons
in their arsenal – enormous siege cannons – to capture the
city on August 15. Leaving death and
destruction, including the shooting of
civilians and the deliberate execution
of Belgian priests, whom they accused
of inciting civilian resistance, the
Germans advanced through Belgium
towards France.
World War I’s Eastern Front And Revolution In
Gallipoli Campaign (1915-16) and Battles of The
Isonzo (1915-17)
With World War I settled into a stalemate in Europe, the Allies attempted to score a victory against the Ottoman Empire,
which had entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers in late 1914. After a failed attack on the Dardanelles (the
strait linking the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean Sea), Allied
forces led by Britain’s Winston Churchill launched a largescale land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915.
The invasion also proved a dismal failure, and in January 1916
Allied forces were forced to stage a full retreat from the shores
of the peninsula, after suffering up to 250,000 casualties. 0
German & Allied Forces 100 Day Offensive
Fortifications of Verdun
“What a bloodbath, what horrid images, what a slaughter. I just cannot
find the words to express my feelings. Hell cannot be this dreadful.” —
Albert Joubaire, French soldier at Verdun.
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Tuesday, November 11, 2014
In the spring of 1918, Germany’s back was against the wall.
The country was suffering from a British blockade of its ports,
and it had lost so many men that the German army was recruiting old men and young boys to fight at the front lines. The
arrival of thousands of fresh troops from the United States was
paving the way for a certain Allied victory.
The German high command knew the only way to win the war
was to defeat the Allies with a major offensive before the Americans could be fully deployed. The plan was for a major push
Human Cost of War
Countries
Total
Total
Troops Casualities *
Allies
Russia
12,000,000
9,150,000
France
8,410,000
6,160,800
British Empire
8,904,467
3,190,235
Italy
5,615,000
2,197,000
United States
4,355,000
323,018
Japan
800,000
1,210
Romania
750,000
535,706
Serbia
707,343
331,106
Belgium
267,000
93,061
Greece
230,000
17,000
Portugal
100,000
33,291
50,000
20,000
Montenegro
Paul von Hindenburg was the
German general who won the major
German victory against Russia at the
Battle of Tannenberg. This battle was
at the very beginning of the war and
the German army destroyed almost
all of the Russian Second Army.
British cartoon satire
against the Somme front held by
November 11, 1918, bringing the bloody battles of World
tacks intended to divert Allied attention from the main push. The
Germany
11,000,000 7,142,558 goal was to quickly break the Allied lines, crush the British army
Austria-Hungary 7,800,000 7,020,000 and force the Allies to seek armistice terms. The Germans moved
Turkey
2,850,000
975,000 so fast they were unable to transBulgaria
1,200,000
266,919 port enough supplies. The Allies
eventually dug in and halted the
Total
22,850,000 15,404,477 German advance. The Germans
suffered 680,000 deaths, while
Grand Total 65,038,810 37,456,904 the Allies lost a combined total of
*Includes those who were killed or died,
850,000 men. The attack failed in
wounded, prisoners and missing.
its goal to break the Allied forces.
The Germans were left in a weak
position, having gained ground that they could not adequately defend and having lost most of their best troops trying to
break the Allied lines. The Allies had the advantage of thousands of fresh troops from the United States under General
John J. Pershing. The Allied supreme commander, Marshal
Ferdinand Foch, decided that the Allies should go back on the
offensive, and agreed to a plan to attack the weakened German Second Army at Amiens. The attack, known as the Battle
of Amiens, was a success. The Allies launched another series
of offensives, including the battles of Second Somme, Second
Noyons and Second Arras. The German lines were eventually
broken and the Germans were forced to retreat back to the
Hindenburg Line, a series of defensive works protecting the
German homeland. The Allies then started attacking the Line
with a series of offensives.
The weakened, exhausted Germans put up a fight, but were
unable to defend the lines. The Allies broke through the
Hindenburg Line at the Battle of Cambrai. The Germans
eventually sued for peace, and the armistice was signed on
ular success for the Allies, but they paid for it dearly. The
Allies lost a total of 1,069,636 casualties, including 127,000
Americans. The Germans lost 785,733 casualties, but perhaps the greatest loss was the collapse of the German Empire.
Total
42,188,810 22,052,427 the British, with three other at- War I to an end. The Hundred Days offensive was a spectac-
Central Powers
Credit: Justin Jurek, Adapted, www.toptenz.net
World War I at Sea (1914-17)
The German navy chose not to confront Britain’s mighty
Royal Navy in a major battle for more than a year, preferring
to base the bulk of its strategy at sea on its lethal submarines. Germany’s policy of unchecked submarine aggression
against shipping interests headed to Great Britain ultimately helped bring the United States into World War I in 1917. 0
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
British war ship from World War I
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A Timeline of World War I, June 2
Jun 28, 1914
Archduke
Assassination
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand is
assassinated in
Sarajevo. His death is
the event that sparks
World War I.
Jul 30, 1914
Russia Mobilizes
Russia mobilizes its
vast army to intervene
against
Austria-Hungary in
favor of its ally,
Serbia. This move
starts a chain reaction
that leads to the
mobilization of the
rest of the European
Great Powers, and
inevitably to the
outbreak of hostilities.
Russian poster from
World War I0[
Aug 4, 1914
World War I
Begins
Germany invades
Belgium, beginning
World War I.
Belgian soldiers
march through the
Menin Gate just
months before the
German invasion of
Belgium in August
1914. The old
medieval ‘gate’ was
by this time merely a
gap in the 17th
century defensive
ramparts of the town
from which the road
ran to the town.
Apr 22, 1915
Germans Fire
The Germans fire
shells filled with
chlorine gas at Allied
lines. This is the first
time that large
amounts of gas are
used in battle, and the
result is the
near-collapse of the
French lines. However,
the Germans are
unable to take
advantage of the
breach.
May 7, 1915
Lusitania Sinks
A German submarine
sinks the British
passenger liner
Lusitania. The ship
carries 1,198 people,
128 of them
Americans.
Sep
. 15, 1915
First Tanks
The British employ the
first tanks ever used
in battle, at Delville
Wood. Although they
are useful at breaking
through barbed wire
and clearing a path
for the infantry, tanks
are still primitive and
they fail to be the
decisive weapon, as
their designers
thought they would
be.
Sep 18, 1915
Germany Limits
Submarines
Reacting to
international outrage
at the sinking of the
Lusitania and other
neutral passenger
lines, Kaiser Wilhelm
suspends unrestricted
submarine warfare.
This is an attempt to
keep the United
States out of the war,
but it severely
hampers German
efforts to prevent
American supplies
from reaching France
and Britain.
Various gas masks
used in WW1
A German WW1
submarine
Feb 1, 1917
Submarines Back
Germany resumes
unrestricted
submarine warfare in
European waterways.
This act, more than
any other, draws the
United States into the
war and causes the
eventual defeat of
Germany.
A WWI Recruitment
poster, using a New
York Herald cartoon
by W.A. Rogers.
Starting on Christmas Eve, many German and British troops sang
Christmas carols to each other across the lines, and at certain points
the Allied soldiers even heard brass bands joining the Germans in their
joyous singing.
At the first light of dawn on Christmas Day, some German soldiers
emerged from their trenches and approached the Allied lines across
no-man’s-land, calling out “Merry Christmas” in their enemies’ native
tongues. At first, the Allied soldiers feared it was a trick, but seeing the
Germans unarmed they climbed out of their trenches and shook hands
with the enemy soldiers. The men exchanged presents of cigarettes
and plum puddings and sang carols and songs. Soldiers from opposing
sides played a good-natured game of soccer. The following Christmas,
both sides had orders to shoot any soldier who did this.
Canadian poster, 1914-1918.
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Tuesday, November 11, 2014
Apr 2, 1917
Wilson For War
President
Wilson outlines his
case for war to
Congress.
Ironically, Wilson
had been elected as
a peace candidate.
"Sergeant" Stubb
Christmas Truce of 1914
German and British troops get together for Christmas in 1914
Feb 25, 1917
Zimmerman
Telegram
British intelligence
gives Wilson a
message from the
German foreign
secretary proposing
that Mexico side with
Germany in case of
war with the United
States. Germany
promises to return to
Mexico the "lost
provinces" of Texas
American Southwest.
Mexico declines the
offer, but the outrage
at this interference in
the Western
Hemisphere pushes
American public
opinion to support
entering the war.
Although dogs were h
was reluctant to use
use of a few hundr
but did not employ
as European countr
terrier cross affectio
crowning glory of the
Stubby remained w
Division, known as
present at many ba
number of injuries, i
gas attacks. It is sa
admired that he was
human soldiers were
Having survived ga
attacks, he becam
very sensitive to th
smell of gas, and wit
his sensitive dog nos
was able to detect ga
much earlier than h
human comrades an
alert them in time. H
acute doggy hearin
allowed
him
th
advantage of hearin
even the quiete
sounds from advanci
enemy, and so Stu
alerting his comrade
was near. His major
spy who had tried to
28, 1914, through November 11, 1919
Apr 6, 1917
U.S. Enters War
Congress authorizes a
declaration of war
against Germany. The
United States enters
World War I on the
side of France and
Britain.
May 18, 1917
Selective Service Act
Congress passes the
Selective Service Act
authorizing the draft.
Although criticized for
destroying democracy
at home while fighting
for it abroad,
President Wilson
claims he sees no
other option and signs
the bill into law.
US recruitment
poster from World
War I
by, Military Dog
Mar 3, 1918
Germany and Russia
Peace
The Germans sign a
peace treaty with the
new Bolshevik
government of Russia.
The terms of the treaty
give Germany huge
tracts of land and
peace on the Eastern
Front allows Germany
to shift soldiers to the
Western Front,
causing serious
problems for the
French, British, and
Americans.
Signing of armistice
between Russia and
Germany
highly utilized in Europe, America
e dogs in World War I. It did make
red that belonged to the Allies,
nearly the same number of dogs
ries did. However, one dog, a bull
onately named Stubby became the
e U.S. army.
with the 102nd Infantry, 26th
s the Yankee division. He was
attles. Over time, he survived a
including those from shrapnel and
aid he became so well known and
s treated in Red Cross hospitals, as
e.
as
me
he
th
se,
as
his
nd
His
ng
he
ng
est
Stubby
ing
ubby proved excellent at silently
es when he could hear the enemy
r triumph was hearing a German
o sneak into camp during the dead
May 28, 1918
Battle of Cantigny
The Battle of Cantigny
is the first major
American offensive of
the war. Though small
in scale, the
Americans fight
bravely and soon go
on to larger attacks
against German
positions.
The explosion of the
German mine
beneath Hawthorn
Ridge Redoubt by
British forces on
July 1, 1916.
(Photo by Ernest
Brooks)
Jun 3, 1918
Chateau-Thierry
The Americans attack
the Germans at
Chateau-Thierry. This
battle would morph
into the larger Battle
of Belleau Wood.
A Marine bulldog
chases a German
dachshund, taking
advantage of the
German nickname
for Marines as
"Devil Dogs".
Jun 6, 1918
Battle of Belleau
Wood
The Battle of Belleau
Wood begins as the
U.S. Marine Corps,
along with British and
French troops, attacks
the Germans across
an open field of
wheat, suffering huge
casualties, now part
of the lore of the US
Marine Corps.
Jun 26, 1918
Belleau Wood Ends
It ends with the final
expulsion of the
Germans from the
wood, which marks
the farthest German
advance on Paris. The
area has changed
hands six times during
the three-week battle,
which has caused
nearly 10,000
American casualties.
Sep 12, 1918
Battle of St. Mihiel
The Battle of St. Mihiel
begins when 300,000
American troops
under the direct
command of General
Pershing fling
themselves into the
German lines.
Nov 9, 1918
Wilhelm Abdicates
Kaiser Wilhelm
abdicates, ending all
German hope for a
victory. He and his
retinue quietly slip
over the border into
the Netherlands
where he lives out the
remainder of his life in
relative peace and
writes a
self-promoting
memoir defending his
actions in the war.
Nov 11, 1919
Armistice Day
An Armistice is signed
ending fighting on the
Western Front.
The Ingordo—too
hard. Kaiser
Wilhelm II of
Germany
caricatured trying
to eat the world,
but finds it "too
hard."
Georges Scott illustration "American
Marines in Belleau Wood (1918)"
of night. The loyal and diligent Stubby managed to
grab the intruder’s leg and immobilize him until troops
came to investigate and imprison the German. He also
asserted himself as a ‘mercy’ dog, scanning the battlefields for injured soldiers and comforting them whilst
they lay dying or alerting paramedics to the wounded. 0
Cher Ami, World War I Carrier Pigeon
“Cher Ami” was a registered Black Check Cock carrier
pigeon, one of 600 birds owned and flown by the U.S.
Army Signal Corps in France during World War I.
Although radio had been invented, small radios for
communications by soldiers on the battlefield had not.
Pigeons carried important battlefield information to
the military headquarters.
Cher Ami became a celebrity, especially to the 194
soldiers who survived an
incident which they were
trapped behind enemy lines
and the Germans shot down
the pigeon. They nursed
him back to health and he
was
eventually
awarded
the French Croix de Guerre
(Cross of War). Cher Ami
died as a result of his wounds
in New Jersey on June 13,
Cher Ami
1919. He’s a member of
the Racing Pigeon Hall of Fame and his stuffed body
(pictured above) is on display at the American Museum
of Natural History. 0
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
American troops pouring into St. Mihiel on
the morning of September 12, 1918.
In 1919, the 369th
infantry regiment
marched home
triumphantly from
World War I. They
had spent more
time in combat than
any other American
unit, never losing
a foot of ground
to the enemy, or a
man to capture and
winning countless
decorations. During
World War I, 380,000
African Americans
served in the wartime
Army. Approximately
200,000 of them
were sent to Europe. More than half of those sent
abroad were assigned to labor and stevedore
battalions, but they performed essential duties
nonetheless, building roads, bridges and trenches
in support of the front-line battles. Roughly 42,000
saw combat. Though they returned as heroes,
this African American unit faced tremendous
discrimination, even from their own government. The
Harlem Hellfighters, as the Germans called them,
fought courageously on and off the battlefield to
make Europe and America, safe for democracy. In THE HARLEM HELLFIGHTERS, bestselling author
Max Brooks and acclaimed illustrator Caanan White
bring this history to life. From the enlistment lines
in Harlem to the training camp at Spartanburg,
South Carolina, to the trenches in France, they
tell the heroic story of the 369th in an actionpacked and powerful tale of honor and heart.
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Women and the War
W
hen the United States entered the European War
on April 6, 1917, it marked the first time in the
history of the country that regular Army and
Navy military nurses served overseas — although without
rank — and it was also the first time, women who were
not nurses were allowed to enlist in the Navy and Marine
Corps. A handful of women also served in the Coast Guard.
The U.S. Army, however, refused to enlist women officially, relying on them as contract employees and civilian
volunteers.
Negative public opinion and hesitant military leaders
limited women’s roles, but the country needed their skills
to pursue the war effort and to move male soldiers out of
office jobs and onto the battlefield.
By the end of World War I, American military women
had served stateside and overseas on the eastern and
western war fronts. Over 230 bilingual civilian telephone
operators working with the Army were organized and
trained by AT&T and took the same oath of allegiance as
male soldiers. Dubbed the “Hello Girls,” they maintained
communications in many places in France, sometimes
working under combat conditions.
U.S. Army General John
J. Pershing
U.S. Army General John
J. Pershing (1860-1948)
commanded the American
Forces in Europe during
World War I.
Credit: Courtesy of the
United States Army
From the outset of World War I, long before American
troops arrived on foreign soil, American women were “over
British poster
there,” volunteering with civilian organizations to provide
nursing, transportation and other war relief services. Women aligned themselves with humanitarian
organizations such as the American Red Cross, YMCA, Salvation Army and others to meet wartime
needs.
Military nurses arrived in Europe before the American
Expeditionary Forces. At the outset of World War
I, 403 women were on active duty in the Army
Nurse Corps, founded in 1901. By Armistice Day on
November 11, 1918, 21,480 nurses had enlisted and
over 10,000 had served overseas. They served with
distinction: three were awarded the Distinguished
Service Cross, 23 received the Distinguished Service
Medal, and numerous nurses received meritorious
awards from allied nations. Several were wounded;
more than 200 died while serving.
"Make Every Minute Count
For Pershing."
Poster art painted by Adolph
Treidler around 1917
War service was hard, uncomfortable and heartbreaking. The nurses treated shrapnel wounds, infections, mustard gas burns plus medical and emotional
trauma. Dealing with amputations was a daily event.
World War I marked a new era in women’s movement
from the home and into the public sphere. Their call
to service by the military establishment was hesitant, limited and unequal in treatment and benefits.
Yet they went to war anyway.
Canadian poster
10
But when the call came for service in World War
II, women’s successful participation in World War
I was an important precedent for expanding roles
of American women in the military and for developing the military establishment’s acceptance
of women’s service in the U.S. Armed Forces. 0
Source: www.womensmemorial.org
Tuesday, November 11, 2014
"The Ships Are Coming"
Poster art painted by James
Henry Daughetry around 1917
Lusitania
The United States Enters the Great War
On May 7, 1915, less than a year after World War I (1914-18) erupted across Europe, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the RMS Lusitania, a British ocean liner en route from New York to Liverpool,
England. Of the more than 1,900 passengers and crewmembers on board, more than 1,100 perished,
including more than 120 Americans. Nearly two years would pass before the United States formally
entered World War I, but the sinking of the Lusitania played a significant role in turning public opinion
against Germany, both in the United States and abroad. 0
Prelude To Lusitania: Germany Announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) pledged neutrality for the
United States, a position that the vast majority of Americans favored. Britain was one of America’s closest
trading partners, and tension soon arose between the United States and Germany over Germany's attempted quarantine of the British Isles. Several U.S. ships traveling to Britain were damaged or sunk by
German mines, and in February 1915, Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters
around Britain.
In early May 1915, several New York newspapers published a warning by the German Embassy in Washington, D.C., that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. The
announcement was placed on the same page as an advertisement of the sailing of the Lusitania liner from
New York back to Liverpool. The sinking of merchant ships off the south coast of Ireland prompted the
British Admiralty to warn the Lusitania, a British ocean liner, to avoid the area or take simple evasive
action, such as zigzagging to confuse submarines plotting the vessel’s course. 0
The Lusitania Sinks
The captain of the Lusitania ignored the British Admiralty’s recommendations, and at 2:12 p.m. on May
7,1915, the 32,000-ton ship was hit by an exploding torpedo fired from a German submarine on its right side.
A larger explosion, probably of the ship’s boilers, followed the torpedo blast and the ship sank off the south
coast of Ireland in less than 20 minutes.
It was revealed that the Lusitania was carrying about 173 tons of war munitions for Britain, which the Germans cited as further justification for the attack. The United States eventually protested the action, and Germany apologized and pledged to end unrestricted submarine warfare. However, in November of that same
year a submarine sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing more than 270 people, including more
than 25 Americans. Public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany.0
America Enters World War I
Woodrow Wilson,
28th President of
the United States.
Opposition to
Entering the War
There were many
groups opposed to
the United States
entering the war. Many
felt it was a European
War and the U.S.
should stay isolated
from it. Progressives
thought it was a war
wrought by the ruling
classes, but was being
fought by the working
class. U.S. citizens
of German descent,
the largest immigrant
group in America, were
naturally opposed
to fighting against
their homeland.
Conscientious
objectors were
against war under any
circumstance. Even
President Woodrow
Wilson campaigned on
an anti-war platform.
The Democrats built
his 1916 reelection
campaign around the
slogan, “He Kept Us
out of War.” Wilson
won by a very narrow
margin.
On January 31, 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced it
would resume unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters. Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after that, the
American ship Housatonic was
sunk by a German submarine.
On February 22, Congress passed
a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the
United States ready for war. In
late March, Germany sunk four
more U.S. merchant ships, and on
April 2 President Wilson appeared
before Congress and called for a
declaration of war against Germany. On April 4, the Senate voted
to declare war against Germany,
and two days later the House of
Representatives endorsed the dec- Woman marching with
laration. With that, America en- peace sign and U.S.
flag, disarmament
tered World War I. 0
Submarine Sinking Ship by Willy Stover, German Marine Painter, 1917.
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
conference, Washington,
D.C. between 1914 and
1922.
11
Men, exasperated and afraid of these rats (which would even scamper
across their faces in the dark), would attempt
to rid the trenches of them by various methods:
gunfire, with the bayonet, and even by clubbing
he Great War, a phrase coined even before them to death.
it had begun, was expected to be a relatively
short affair and, as with most wars, one of It was futile. A single rat couple could produce
great movement. The war began with sweeping up to 900 offspring in a year, spreading infecadvances by the Germans through Belgium and tion and contaminating food. The rat problem
France en route for Paris. However stalemate remained for the duration of the war. 0
— and trench warfare soon set in — and the
expected war of movement wasn’t restored until
Lice, Frogs and Trench Foot
towards the close of the war.
Life in the Trenches
T
The trench network of World War I stretched
approximately 25,000 miles from the English
Channel to Switzerland. The area was known
as the Western Front. British poet Siegfried
Sassoon wrote, “When all is done and said,
the war was mainly a matter of holes and
ditches.” 0
Daily Death in the Trenches
Death was a constant companion to those serving
in the line. In busy sectors the constant shellfire
directed by the enemy brought random death,
whether the victims were lounging in a trench or
lying in a dugout. Similarly, young soldiers were
warned against their natural inclination to peer
over the top of the trench into No Man’s Land.
Many men died on their first day in the trenches
as a consequence of a sniper’s bullet.
"I saw men dead from exhaustion from their
efforts to get out of the mud... We were
pitchforked into a quagmire in the dark and
there was no possibility of a man helping the
one next to him... It was the worst instance
I came across of what appeared to be a cruel
useless sacrifice of life."
Lice were a never-ending problem, breeding in
the seams of filthy clothing and causing men to
itch unceasingly.
Even when clothing was periodically washed
and deloused, lice eggs invariably remained
hidden in the seams. Within a few hours of
the clothes being re-worn, the body heat would
cause the eggs to hatch.
Lice caused Trench Fever, a particularly
painful disease that began suddenly with
severe pain followed by high fever. Recovery,
away from the trenches, took up to twelve
weeks. Lice were not actually identified as the
culprit in Trench Fever until 1918.
Frogs by the score were found in shell holes
covered in water; they were also found in the
base of trenches. Slugs and horned
beetles crowded the sides of the
trench.
Rats in the millions infested trenches. The brown
rat was especially feared. Gorging themselves on
human remains that could not be retrieved from
the battlefield, they could grow to the size of a cat.
12
Soldier in a trench taking a
photograph with a camera
attached to a periscope.
Many men chose to shave their
heads entirely to avoid another
prevalent scourge: head lice.
Food for soldiers in the trenches
during World War I was at times
considered a luxury. Getting
decent hot food from the field
kitchens to the front line trenches
— L.W. Kentish, British officer
could be impossible when a battle
was either imminent or in full
flow. When soldiers were at standIt is estimated nearly a third of Allied casual- down, food was easier to acquire and
ties on the Western Front were sustained in the both British and German troops could
trenches. Aside from enemy injuries, disease expect certain food to be available
with a degree of frequency.
took a heavy toll. 0
Rat Infestation
Soldiers slept and rested in the
trenches.
Canadian soldiers in a trench, in 1916
German trenches were in stark
contrast to British trenches. German
trenches were built to last and included
bunk beds, furniture, cupboards, water
tanks with faucets, electric lights and
doorbells. 0
Tuesday, November 11, 2014
A German trench occupied by British Soldiers,
July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme.
The Bolshevik Revolution & the Treaty An armistice was reached in early December
1917 and a formal cease-fire was declared
of Brest-Litovsk
December 15, but determining the terms of
peace between Russia and the Central Powers
proved to be far more complicated. Negotiations
began at Brest-Litovsk on December 22.
Postcard showing German trenches
Russia’s involvement in World War I alongside
its allies, France and Britain, had resulted in
a number of heavy losses against Germany.
Defeat on the battlefield fed the growing
discontent among the bulk of Russia’s population, especially the poverty-stricken workers
and peasants, and hostility toward the
imperial regime, led by the ineffectual Czar
Nicholas II (1868-1918). This
discontent strengthened the
cause of the Bolsheviks, a
radical socialist group led by
Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)
that was working to harness
opposition to the czar and
turn it into a sweeping
revolution that would begin
in Russia and later, Lenin
hoped, spread to the rest of
the world.
In mid-February, the talks broke down when
an angry Leon Trotsky of Russia deemed the
Central Powers’ terms too harsh and their
demands for territory unacceptable. Fighting
resumed briefly on the Eastern Front, but the
German armies advanced quickly, and Russia
soon realized that in its weakened state, it
would be forced to give in to the enemy terms.
Negotiations resumed later that month and
the final treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.
By the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
Russia recognized the independence of
Ukraine, Georgia and Finland; gave up
Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania,
Latvia and Estonia to Germany and AustriaHungary; and ceded Kars, Ardahan and
Batum to Turkey. The total losses constituted
some 1 million square miles of Russia’s
former territory; a third
of its population or around
55 million
people; a
majority of its
coal, oil and
iron stores;
and much of
its industry.
The February Revolution
broke out in early March
1917. Nicholas abdicated
later that month. After
Lenin’s return from exile
(aided by the Germans) in
mid-April, he and his fellow
Bolsheviks worked quickly
to seize power from the
provisional government. In
early November, aided by the
Russian military, they were
successful. One of Lenin’s
first actions as leader was to
call a halt to Russian participation in the war.
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
Vladimir Lenin
Lenin bitterly called Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk “that abyss
of defeat, dismemberment,
enslavement and
humiliation.”
Russian Revolutionary
Poster, "Mount your
horses, workers and
peasants!
The treaty
ended
Russia’s
involvement
in World
War I. 0
Left: In 1920, Dmitry
Moor designed a
striking poster that
featured a drawing
of Trotsky holding
a bayonet and
standing, larger
than life, on Russian
territory.
A Soviet propaganda poster
featuring Vladimir Lenin
13
The War in the Air
Britain’s most famous bomber, the Handley-Page O/400, could carry a bomb
load of 2000 lbs at a top speed of 97 mph for flights lasting eight hours. Two
hen Archduke Ferdinand was assassi- 360 hp engines powered it.
nated on the 28th of June 1914, just a
decade had passed since the Wright In 1914, it was important that airplanes be easy to fly, as pilots received
minimal training. Louis Strange, an innovative pilot from the opening
brothers’ first flight at Kitty Hawk, NC.
stages of the war, was an early graduate of the Royal Flying Corps flight
In 1911 the Italians, at war with Turkey in Libya, school. He began flying combat missions after completing only three-and-abecame the first to make military use of the half hours of actual flying time. For this reason, airplanes were designed for
airplane, dropping grenades from a German-built stability. By the end of the war, stability had given way to maneuverability.
monoplane. In 1912 they also dropped bombs from The famous Sopwith Camel was a difficult airplanes to fly, but supremely
agile.
an airship.
W
Not only did airplanes become faster, more maneuverable and more powerful, but a number of technologies that were common at the start of the war
had almost disappeared by the end of it. Many of
the airplanes in 1914 were of “pusher” layout. This
is the same configuration that the Wright brothers
used, where the propeller faced backwards and
pushed the airplanes forward.
When war broke out,
the number of airplanes
on all sides and all
fronts was very small.
France had less than 200
airplanes at the start of
the war. During the war
France produced 68,000
airplanes
of
which
52,000 were lost in
battle, a horrendous loss
rate of 77%.
The period between 1914
and 1918 saw not only
tremendous production,
but also tremendous
development in airplanes
technology.
The alternative layout, where the propeller faces
forwards and pulls the airplanes, provided better
performance. World War I marked the end of pusher
airplanes.
The rapid pace of technological innovation was
matched by a rapid change in how airplanes were
used. In 1914, there were few generals who viewed
airplanes as anything more than a tool for observation. By the end of the war, both sides were using them as a key part of
their planned strategies. 0
A typical British airplanes at the outbreak of the
Credit: www.firstworldwar.com
war was the general purpose BE2c, with a top
During WWI, American hamburgers
speed of 72 mph. Powered by a 90 hp engine, it
(named after the German city of
could remain aloft for over three hours. By the end
Hamburg) were renamed Salisbury
of the war, airplanes were designed for specific
steak. Frankfurters, which were
tasks. Built for speed and maneuverability, the
named after Frankfurt, Germany,
were called “liberty sausages," and
SE5a fighter of 1917 was powered by a 200 hp
dachshunds became “liberty dogs.”
engine and had a top speed of 138 mph.
Pilots fired their machine guns by hand while also flying
the plane.
Lamberhurst, a late production Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 built by the Siddeley-Deasy Motor Company.
14
Tuesday, November 11, 2014
Recruitment poster from 1917, in the collection
at Library of Congress.
Weapons of War: Poison Gas
C
onsidered uncivilized before World War
I, the development and use of poison gas
was made necessary by the requirement
of wartime armies to find new ways of ending
the stalemate of unexpected trench warfare.
Although it is popularly believed that the
German army was the first to use gas, the
French initially deployed it. In the first month
of the war, August 1914, they fired tear-gas
grenades against the Germans. But it was the
German army that seriously studied development of chemical weapons for large-scale use.
In the capture of
Neuve Chapelle
in October 1914,
the German
army fired shells
at the French
that contained a
chemical irritant
that induced
a violent fit of
sneezing. Three
months later,
on January
31, 1915, the
Germans
employed tear
gas for the first
time on the
Eastern Front.
troops noticed a curious yellow-green
cloud drifting slowly towards their line.
The French suspected that the cloud masked
an advance by German infantry and ordered
their men to ‘stand to’ — mount the trench
fire step in readiness for probable attack.
The effects of the chlorine gas were severe.
Within seconds of inhaling it, the victim’s
respiratory organs were destroyed. Panicstricken, the French and Algerian troops fled,
creating a four-mile gap in the Allied line. The
Germans’ use of chlorine gas provoked immediate widespread condemnation, and damaged
German relations
with the neutral
powers, including
the U.S. The
attacks also
fueled propaganda campaigns
against
Germany.
British machine gun crew wearing gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
July 1916.
Introduction of Poison Gas
The first poison gas, chlorine was used April 22,
1915 at the start of the Second Battle of Ypres.
After a bombardment, French and Algerian
British propaganda
postcard, entitled "The End
of the 'Baby-Killer,'" created:
December 31, 1915.
Once the Allies
recovered from
the initial shock
of the Germans’
practical application of poison
gas warfare, they
were determined
to get revenge.
The British
were the first
to respond.
They were not allowed to refer to the word
“gas” in their operations, due to the stigma
attached to its use. They referred to their gas
canisters as “accessories”; use of the word
“gas” brought the threat of punishment.
Publisher: Poster issued
by the South Australian
Government, 1915.
On the evening of September 24, 1915,
400 chlorine gas canisters were established among the British front line
around Loos. The gas was released by
turning a cock on each cylinder.
The retaliatory attack began the following
morning at 5:20 a.m. A mixture of smoke
and chlorine gas was released intermittently over a period of about 40 minutes
before the infantry assault began.
British troops blinded by tear gas wait for treatment at an
Advanced Dressing Station during the Battle of Estaires,
April 10, 1918.
The wind shifted and quantities of the
smoke and gas were blown back into
the British trenches. It has been estimated that more British gas casualties
were suffered than German. 0
100 YEARS AGO THE WORLD WAS AT WAR
Austrian Poster.
15
The End of World War I
With Germany able to build up its strength on the Western Front after the
armistice with Russia, Allied troops struggled to hold off another German offensive until promised reinforcements from the United States could arrive. On
July 15, 1918, German troops launched what would become the last German
attack of the war, attacking French forces (joined by 85,000 American troops
as well as some of the British Expeditionary Force) in the Second Battle of the
Marne. Thanks to the strategic leadership of the French, the Allies pushed
back the German offensive and launched their own counteroffensive just three
days later. After suffering massive casualties, Germany was forced to call off
a planned offensive further north, in the Flanders region stretching between
France and Belgium, which was Germany’s best hope of victory.
The final Allied push toward the German border began on October 17, 1918.
As the British, French and American armies advanced, the alliance between
the Central Powers began to collapse. Turkey signed an armistice at the end of
October; Austria-Hungary followed on November 3.
Germany began to crumble from within. Faced with the prospect of returning to
sea, the sailors of the High Seas Fleet stationed at Kiel mutinied on October 29.
Within a few days, the entire city was in their control and the revolution spread
throughout the country. On November 9, the Kaiser abdicated and slipped
across the border into the Netherlands and exile. A German Republic was
declared and peace feelers extended to the Allies. At 5:10 a.m. on the morning
of November 11 a peace agreement was signed in a railroad car parked in a
French forest near the front lines.
The terms of
the agreement
called for
the end of
fighting along
the entire
Western Front
to begin at
precisely 11
a.m. that
morning.
After over
four years
of bloody
conflict, the
Great War
was at an end.
0
Much of Europe was destroyed during World War I
This educational section from
the Deseret News¹ Newspapers in
Education program was designed
by Amy O¹Donnell. The project was
under the direction of Cindy Richards,
Desert News Newspapers in Education
director, with special thanks to Gregory
Reed, vice president, Member Services
and Jenn Earles, branch marketing
and community relations manager of
Security Service Federal Credit Union.
CREDITS: cover image: America WWI
Poster,published 1918. Photos and
historic posters featured are
in the public domain.
Some content provided
by History.com
World War I’s Legacy
World War I took the lives of more than 10 million soldiers and 7 million civilians and another 20 million were
wounded. Millions of other people fell victim to the Spanish influenza epidemic that the war helped to spread. The two
nations most affected were Germany and France, each of which sent about 80 percent of their male populations
between the ages of 15 and 49 into battle. The war also marked the fall of four imperial dynasties: Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey.
At the peace conference in Paris in 1919, Allied leaders would state their desire to build a post-war world that
would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such devastating scale. The Versailles Treaty, signed on June
28, 1919, would not achieve this goal. Saddled with war guilt and and denied entrance into the League of Nations,
Germany felt tricked into signing the treaty, having believed any peace would be a “peace without victory” as put
forward by President Woodrow Wilson in his famous Fourteen Points speech of January 1918. As the years passed,
hatred of the Versailles Treaty and its authors settled into resentment in Germany that would, two decades later,
be among the causes of World War II. 0
16
Tuesday, November 11, 2014