Download Psychology-Induction-Lesson PDF File


Baddeley (1966)

4 groups
You are going to be given a set of
cards.
 Read each card for 3 secs to try
to remember the cards in

order
Now
recall




Results:
Those with:
man, cab, can, cad, cap, mad, max, mat,
cat, map
Should have remember on average
slightly more than the other lists.
New A-level (changes as of September
2015)
We will cover ?? topics over the two years
with myself and Mr Haydon.
With me, in year 12 you will cover:

Models of Memory
 The Multi-Store Model of memory
 The Working Memory Model

Memory in Everyday Life
 Eyewitness Testimony
 The Cognitive Interview
 How can you improve your memory?


The role that memory plays in our everyday
lives cannot be underestimated.
Without memory you would be unable to learn
to ride a bike, read, know where we live, how
to get home, recognising people, how to drive
or do anything that you are able to do
(apparently automatically).

They all rely on our ability to store and
retrieve information

What did you do last Saturday?
To answer previous question you must
have a stored representation of the
events that can be retrieved. You
must have encoded information about
the events as they were happening

Capacity is the measure of how much can be
held in memory.

Duration is how long the information can be
held for.

Encoding is the way in which information is
changed so that it can be stored in memory.
This is based on how information enters the
brain via our senses. We have visual codes
(sight), acoustic (sound) forms and semantic
(meaningful).
So why do
psychologists
study memory?
1. Repetition
 Memory is improved through repetition. If we repeat things, especially over a long
period of time, we are much more likely to remember them
2. Strong stimulus
Which of these are you more likely to remember?




Incident 1: The sound of a car, braking suddenly, to avoid a cat crossing the road.
Incident 2: Your mother asking you to pick up a loaf of bread on your way home.
Patterns
We are more likely to remember information if we can either see or make a pattern
out of it.
Yellow
Window

Look at this list of words:
pieces
dog
table
quickly
wool
lamp
Can anyone think of a sentence that incorporates all of these words?



You are more likely to remember
Incident 1, as the stimulus is stronger.
Making a story/pattern to remember:
A dog looked through a window and saw
a yellow car drive quickly down the
road. The dog barked and knocked
a lamp off the table, which broke
into pieces on the wool carpet.

The first basic model of memory

Developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin


Uses the computer structure to explain human
memory
They Proposed 3 Separate Stores that vary in
terms of:
Coding
Duration
Capacity
Forgetting
Sensory
Memory


Is what happens after information has
reached the sense organs, and it travels
to the brain for interpretation.
There are two types of sensory store:
 Iconic Storage – Visual Information: does not see a coding
system, it simply holds a brief image of what was in front
of us.
 Echoic Storage – Auditory Information: Hold information
for up to 4 seconds, it enables a sentence to be held in the
echoic memory.
Some letters will be shown on the screen, once
they have gone off the display, recall as many
letters as you can.
.
L
K
O
M
V
G
D
P
O
A
W
S
Recall as memory letters as you
can from the display.
How many did you remember?
.
L
K
O
M
V
G
D
P
O
A
W
S
Aim
to demonstrate the capacity of sensory (iconic) memory
Method
Participants were shown a Visual array of 12 letters
displayed for 50 milliseconds (quicker than you can
blink). Participants were then asked to recall the
letters they had seen immediately after presentation.
Results
On average recall was only 4 out of 12 letters, due to
the information faded so rapidly that most items were
lost before they could report them. Read from an image.
Sensory
Memory
Capacity
Small (echoic)
Large (Iconic)
Duration
0.25- 4 seconds
Encoding
Modality Specific
(Iconic/Echoic)
Study to
research
(Sperling 1960)
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Short
Term
Memory
Forgetting
CAPACITY


Miller (1956) reviewed many already existing
studies and suggests that the short term
memory can hold 7 +/- 2 items (between 5
and 9 items)
He suggest we could increase this by
Chunking information.
 This is where letters are grouped together
into words or into abbreviations that have
meaning to us.

Recall the following letters.....
P SY G E O P E S C I H I S T

Now recall the letters.
PSY GEO PE SCI HIST
second condition was easier to recall.
If we group letters together so that they
form chunks of information that we as
English-speaking people with knowledge of the
Education system will understand (they are
meaningful).
Encoding
B V T C D G E P
Now recall, in the order
read out, as many words
as you can from the
previous list

Recall again
M R W L Z Y Q
A
Now recall, in the order
read out, as many words
as you can from the
previous list



You will have noticed that all the letters
in the first list sound similar, they are
acoustically similar.
You were more likely to have made
errors when recalling the letters that
sound acoustically similar (list 1).
The results of this imply that
information stored in the STM is stored
in an acoustic code.
Primacy & Recency Effect
I am going to read out a list of 20 words,
once I have finished reading out ALL of
the words, recall and write down as
many as you can remember in no
particular order.
We will then analyse our findings!
Typically
words near the beginning and the end of
the list were better recalled than those in the middle.
This
is an effect called the Primacy and Recency
Effect.
Primacy meaning first few words.
Recency meaning most recent words.
WHY?
Words first heard were rehearsed and transferred
from the STM to the LTM, as a result the STM was
freed up, and the last few words were stored in the
STM until asked to be recalled.
Items recalled
from Long-Term
Memory
Items recalled
from Short-Term
Memory
AIM
To explore the role of rehearsal in relation to
the capacity and duration of STM
METHOD
1 group of participants recalled a list of words
immediately after presentation.
The other group of participants had the same
list of words to recall, but immediately after
the list was read out, participants were given a
30 seconds distracter task of counting
backwards in threes.
RESULTS
When asked to recall the words in any order, it
was found that the control group show both
primacy and recency effect. However
participants given the distracter task showed only
primacy effects, recalling the items from the
start of the list. WHY IS THIS?
CONCLUSION
Shows the STM and LTM are different stores
Sensory
Memory
Short Term
Memory
Capacity
Small
7 +/- 2
Duration
0.25- 2 seconds
Up to 30
seconds
Encoding
Modality
Specific
Mainly Acoustic
Study to
research
Glazner and
Cunitz
Long Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory


According to Multi-store model, LTM
can hold unlimited amounts of
information for an indefinite period of
time.
Together with visual and acoustic
coding, this store uses mainly semantic
(meaningful) coding, e.g. Is based on the
meaning of information.
 Baddeley
(1966)
 Remember
the task that
we did at the very start.
 Recall
as many words as
you can IN ORDER



Those with:
Great, large, big, huge, broad, long, tall,
fat, wide, high
Should have remember on average
slightly more than the other lists.

The words were:
 Man, cab, can, cad, cap, mad, max, mat, cat,
map = sound the same – ACOUSTIC in STM
 Pit, few, cow, pen, sup, bar, day, hot, rig, bun =
sound different
 Great, large, big, huge, broad, long, tall, fat,
wide, high = mean the same kind of thing
LTM IS SEMANTIC
 Good, huge, hot, safe, thin, deep, strong foul
old, late = do not mean the same thing
Aim; To explore the effects of acoustic and semantic coding
in Short term memory and long term memory
Procedures;
In the STM study, participants were asked immediately
after presentation, to recall, in serial order, a list of five
words taken from a pool of words in the following categories.
 -acoustically similar words, (eg man, mad, map): Words
that sound the same
-acoustically dissimilar words (eg pen, day few): Words
that sound different
-semantically similar words (eg great, big, large): Words
that have the same meaning
-semantically dissimilar words (eg hot, old, late): Words
that have a different meaning

In the LTM study, each list of words was extended to ten,
and recall was tested after an interval of 20-30minutes.
Conclusions;
STM relies heavily on acoustic coding
 LTM primarily makes use of semantic
coding

Capacity
Duration
Sensory
Memory
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Small
7 +/- 2
Unlimited
0.25- 2 seconds
Encoding
Modality
Specific
Study to
research
Sperling
Up to 30
seconds
Indefinite period
of time
Mainly Semantic
Mainly Acoustic
but also
Visual/Acoustic
Glazner and
Cunitz
Baddeley

http://thebrainobservatory.ucsd.edu/c
ontent/video-scientia-nova-memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model
described information flowing through a
memory systems –SM, STM, LTM
Stores are therefore PASSIVE
SM has very limited capacity, and is
Modality based – info is held very briefly
in the sense organs through which is
received.
STM uses an acoustic code and has a
capacity of 7 +/- 2 items, which last
between 6-12 seconds, can be extended
be rehearsal.
LTM has unlimited capacity and can
potentially last indefinitely. It mainly
uses a semantic code, but info can also be
encoded visually or acoustically.

Read through the following points and
condense the main strengths and
weaknesses of the MSM.
Atkinson and Shriffrin’s Model has made a
valuable contribution to memory research,
distinguishing clearly between the
structures and the process of memory.
Evidence of the STM and LTM:
 Primacy and recency effect (proves two


separate stores)
The case of HM (next slide)
Different coding is used in the STM and
LTM
He had brain surgery in 1953 when 27 – to reduce
symptoms of epilepsy, by removing his hippocampus.

Suffered Side effect of memory loss

STM was normal – but couldn’t transfer new information
to LTM (suggesting the hippocampus may be the gateway
through which new memories must pass before entering
the permanent storage).

No knowledge of current affairs, forgot news after
reading

Could remember people from the past but not new people

Seemed cognitively normal – used language, perceptual as
well as his motor skills.
Shows the STM and LTM are different stores that are
linked by a connection pathway which was broken during
surgery.


It implies that, to reach the LTM, information
needs to flow through STM.
 Shallice and Warrington (1970) carried out a case
study of KF (a person who suffered Brain Damage
after a motorbike accident). His STM was seriously
impaired, he had difficulty dealing with verbal
information but not visual information suggesting STM
is not a single store.


This case study suggests that information does
not have to flow from the STM in order to reach
the LTM.
The Multi-store model takes NO account of the
nature of information to be recalled,
concentrating only on quantity.
.


It treats all information the same, whereas we
know intuitively that the nature of what we are
trying the remember is important in whether or
not it is remembered.
It does not explain Flashbulb memory, this is
where people have particularly strong, vivid and
often detailed memory of where they were and
exactly what they were doing when a specific
major event occurred, i.e. London riots. These
memories seem to go straight to the LTM
WITHOUT the rehearsal which the multi-store
model suggests in necessary.


As a result the model seems to simplistic in
its assumption that memory flows in one
direction through the different stores.
Finally there is evidence that NEITHER the
STM nor the LTM is a unitary (single) store.