Download Learning (Cognitive Learning).

9 A Third Type of Learning: Cognitive Learning 
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Sometimes we have “flashes of ___________________” when dealing with a problem where we have been experiencing trial and error. This type of learning is called cognitive learning, which is explained as changes in ____________ ________________________________, rather than as changes in behavior alone. o Cognitive and ___________________ psychologists believe that learning is impacted by cognitive factors that include attention, memory, creativity, and imagery. Classical conditioning is based on the contiguity model – when events are placed together close in ____________ and ____________, learning results Robert Rescorla extended classical conditioning with the contingency model – one stimulus needs to reliably _______________ the arrival of the second stimulus for learning to result; in effect, cognitive expectations about contingencies guide learning. Both models can also be applied to __________________ conditioning where consequences need to be immediate and effective. Latent Learning 
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Edward Tolman was one of the first to investigate the role of cognitive processes in operant conditioning. When rats were put into a maze with multiple routes to the ____________________, the rats would repeatedly attempt the shortest route. If their preferred route was blocked, they would choose the next shortest route to the reward. Latent learning: Learning that occurs _____________ effort, awareness, or reinforcement, but is not apparent until the learner has an _______________ to demonstrate it. Latent = something that is ______________. Cognition Map: A mental ______________________ of a place. Insight Learning 
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Insight is the “aha!” experience people have when a solution to a problem ___________________ becomes clear. o Gestalt psychologists thought of it as the sudden perception of _____________________ between multiple parts of a problem. Wolfgang Kohler believed that chimps could solve ___________________ problems by combining ____________________ behaviors they had previously learned separately. Kohler taught _____________ the Chimp how to stack boxes to obtain bananas that were over his head and how to use a stick to obtain something that was out of his reach. He taught Sultan these skills in _____________________ situations. 10 
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When Sultan was put in a situation where the bananas were still out of his reach after stacking the boxes, Sultan became frustrated. He threw the stick and kicked the wall before sitting down. Suddenly, he jumped up and dragged the boxes and stick under the bananas. He then climbed up the boxes and whacked the fruit down with the stick. This suggested to Kohler that the animals were not mindlessly using conditioned behavior, but were learning by __________________________ their perceptions of problems. Learned Helplessness 
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Martin Seligman studied ___________ who had been classically conditioned to associate a light or tone with an electric shock they were unable to stop. o Next the dogs were placed in an apparatus that would allow them to jump to safety when the floor was electrified. o Instead, they cried and passively endured the pain – the escape learning normally obvious was not visible. The loss of ____________________ and ________________ to attempt to escape from unpleasant stimuli that happens if individuals perceive that they are not able to exert _________________ over their environment. Real‐Life Application o A child who performs poorly on math tests and assignments will quickly begin to feel that nothing he does will have any effect on his math performance. When later faced with any type of math‐related task, he may experience a sense of helplessness. o A woman who feels shy in social situations may eventually begin to feel that there is nothing she can do to overcome her symptoms. This sense that her symptoms are out of her direct control may lead her to stop trying to engage herself in social situations, thus making her shyness even more pronounced. o Depression, anxiety, phobias, shyness and loneliness can all be exacerbated by learned helplessness. Observational Learning 
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You can think of observational learning as an ____________________ of operant conditioning, in which we observe someone else getting rewarded but act as though we had also received the reward. Observational learning: Learning in which new _____________________ are acquired after other’s behavior and the consequences of their behavior are observed. Social psychologist Albert Bandura emphasized that observational learning was the result of _______________________. o After observing adults seeming to enjoy punching, hitting and kicking an inflated doll called Bobo, the children later showed similar ____________________ behavior toward the doll. o Significantly, these children were more aggressive than those in a control condition who did not witness the adult’s violence. 11 
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Observational learning can be powerful in families (between ____________________) as well as among friends. Does violence on TV/movies/video games have an impact on the learning of children? o _______________________ evidence from over 50 studies shows that observing violence is ______________________ with violent behavior. o In addition, ______________________ evidence shows that viewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts‐a condition known as ________________________________________. Biological Predispositions 
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Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all _______________. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning. o However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is _______________________ by an animal’s biology. Certain organisms make learned associations with some type of stimuli easier than other stimuli. o John Garcia studied rats and found that due to their excellent sense of ___________ and weaker vision, they were more likely to respond to ____________ during classical conditioning. While biological preparedness influences the ______________ of associations best learned by a particular animal, biological constraints are _____________________________ imposed by biology on a species in terms of what they are capable of learning. o Biological preparedness suggests that humans are more likely to develop ___________________ of objects and situations that would have posed danger in the past to our ancestors, such as confined places, heights, darkness, snakes, and spiders. o Humans are the only organisms capable of ___________________________ (biological preparedness) , but humans are not capable of breathing under water and cannot learn that _________________ (biological constraint) Conditioned Taste Aversions 
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Involves an organism learning to _________________ a particular food or liquid after it becomes associated with nausea. Taste aversions may have had an _______________________ value because they allowed individuals the ability to associate sickness with foods eaten prior to illness and learn to avoid potentially _________________________ foods. First studied by John Garcia when it was noticed that rats who had received _____________________ treatment in their cage were avoiding their water bottles because they had learned to avoid the water as it was associated with the nausea from the radiation. o The Garcia Effect showed that the association between the water and nausea could be made even though the sick feeling did not result for many hours after exposure to the water – contradicted previous behaviorist theory regarding ____________________. o Taste aversion are also unusual because they typically only require _______________ pairing for learning to occur. o Real‐life application: controlling predators without having to kill animals