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Jewish Glossary
A
Abelut (Heb., mourning) Seven days of mourning after the burial of a close relative (as in, "to
sit shiva"). See shiva. shloshim.
Abraham (adj. Abrahamic) The patriarch who is acknowledged as a special early figure in the
histories and folklore of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Presumed to have lived
sometime in the period 2000-1700 BCE; father of Ishmael by Hagar and of Isaac by
Sarah. See Bible Genesis 12-25; NT Galatians 3-4;
Adam (and Eve) (Hebrew for human, man) Name given to the first created male (with Eve as female)
in the creation story in the Jewish scriptures (Genesis 1). Has been interpreted over
the centuries both literally (as an actual historical person) and symbolically (as
generic humankind; see allegory).
Aggada(h) (adj. aggadic; Aramaic, "telling, narration") Jewish term for non-halakic (nonlegal)
matter, especially in Talmud and Midrash; includes folklore, legend,
theology/theosophy, scriptural interpretations, biography, etc.; also spelled
haggada(h), not to be confused, however, with the Passover Manual called "the
Haggada(h)."
Akiba (or better, Aqiba) ben Joseph Famous Jewish rabbi (c. 50-135 CE) in ancient Israel; a
major legal scholar, who established an academy in Bne Brak, and was also a
legendary mystic and martyr. He was tortured and killed by the Romans in 135 CE.
Aliy(y)a(h) A term used in modern Judaism especially for migration (Heb., going up) to the land
of Israel (Aliya can also be used for going up to the altar bimah to read from Torah.
Allegory (Greek term), adj. allegorical, vb. allegorize Usually used in reference to symbolic interpretation of
scriptures or other authoritative materials, in Judaism and Islam as well as in
Christianity. See midrash,.
Altar Historically, it usually refers to a raised surface (like a table) or platform on which
sacrifices were performed. Thus it came to designate the central location for liturgical
functions such as reading Torah (Jewish; see bima) or administering the eucharist
(Christian).
Am haaretz -
(pl. ammey haaretz; Heb., "people of the land") A term used in Jewish scriptures for
citizens, or some particular class of citizens; in rabbinic literature, for persons or
groups that dissented from or were uninstructed in rabbinic halaka and rigorous purity
and tithing norms. It sometimes signifies the unlearned, sometimes is used
condescendingly (boor). It was also used of the broad mass of Jewish people of the 1st
century CE, who cannot be categorized into any of the sub-groups of the time. See
also Pharisees.
Amida(h) (Heb., standing; pl. amidot) The main section of rabbinic Jewish prayers, recited in a
standing posture; also known as *tefillah or shemoneh esreh (eighteen benedictions).
Amora (pl. amoraim; Heb.,"speaker") Rabbinic Jewish teachers of the 4th and 5th centuries
CE who produced the gemara for the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds.
Amphictyony Greek term for a religio-political federation with its common focus a sanctuary
dedicated to God; an association of neighboring states or tribes in ancient Greece that
banded together for common interest and protection. This model has sometimes been
used to describe the situation in "the period of the judges" (prior to Saul and David) in
Ancient Israel.
Angel (Greek, lit. "messenger") Came to be used specifically for a class of extrahuman
("spiritual") beings, both good (usually) and bad ("demons", "the devil"/Satan) who
become involved in human affairs; common to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. A
leader or special functionary among the angels is sometimes c alled an "archangel"
(e.g. Michael, Gabriel).
Anthropomorphism Greek term for the attribution of human behavior or characteristics to inanimate
objects, animals, natural phenomena, or deity. With regard to deity,
anthropomorphism became a point of theological discussion in Judaism, Christianity
and Islam.
antisemitism Literally means opposed to Semites (which would include Arabic and other semitic
peoples as well), but usually applied specifically to opposition to Jews (anti-Judaism).
apocalypse (adj. apocalyptic) From the Greek, meaning "revelation." A genre of literature
(attested in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions) in which the author claims to
have received revelation(s), usually about the end -time, and expresses them in vivid
symbolism. The intertestamental Jewish and the early Christian apocalypses are often
pseudepigraphical.
aqedah -
(Heb., binding [of Isaac]) The Jewish biblical account of God's command to Abraham
to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice (Genesis 22).
Aqiba Famous Jewish rabbi (c. 50-135 CE) in ancient Palestine; a major legal scholar, who
established an academy in Bne Brak, and was also a legendary mystic and martyr. He
was tortured and killed by the Romans in 135 CE. See Akiba.
Ashkenazi(m) (adj. Ashkenazic) The term now used for Jews who derive from northern Europe and
who generally follow the customs originating in medieval German Judaism, in
contradistinction to Sephardic Judaism, which has its distinctive roots in Spain and
the Mediterranean ( see Sephardim). Originally the designation Ashkenaz referred to a
people and country bordering on Armenia and the upper Euphrates; in medieval
times, it came to refer to the Jewish area of settlement in northwest Europe (northern
France and western German y). By extension, it now refers to Jews of northern and
eastern European background (including Russia) with their distinctive liturgical
practices or religious and social customs.
assimilation The process of becoming similar to something; used in discussion of religious and
cultural developments to describe the process in which the characteristic traits of a
person or group may be lost or modified during adaptation to differing surroundings
or conditions. See syncretism.
atheism (from Greek, no deity) A general term for the position that there is no God/deity
authority That to which submission of some sort is due, whether a person (as "the authority of
the rabbi/bishop/imam") or an institution ("of the church/community") or some other
appropriate focus ("of the law/scripture/tradition").
Av (or Ab)A month in the Jewish calendar; the 9th of Av is a day of mourning for the
destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 586 BCE and again in 70 CE.
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B
Ba'al Shem Tov (BeSHT; lit. Master of the Good Name) Founder of mid 18th century Jewish
Hasidism (proper name was Israel).
bar (bat) mitzvah (Heb., son (daughter)-of-the-command-ment(s)) The phrase originally referred to a
person responsible for performing the divine commandments of Judaism; it now
refers to the occasion when a boy or girl reaches the age of religious majority and
responsibility (thirteen years for a boy; twelve years and a day for a girl). In
Christianity, compare confirmation.
bat (Heb., daughter, daughter of; Arabic bint) Used frequently in matronymics (naming
by identity of mother); see also ben, *bar.
bavli Jewish shorthand term for the Babylonian Talmud.
belief A term with multiple applications, from general assent or fidelity to a religious idea or
position (constituting someone as a to specific reference to well defined religious
conceptual objects (beliefs).. For classical Judaism, see the thirteen principles;
Christianity has tended to be more preoccupied with defining beliefs than have
classical Judaism or Islam.
ben (Heb., son, son of; Aramaic *bar; Arabic ibn) Used frequently in patronymics
(naming by identity of father); Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph means Akiba son of Joseph.
See also bat,.
berak (h)ah (Heb., blessing; Arabic baraka) In Judaism, an offering of thankfulness that
praises God for a benefit conferred or a great event experienced (pl. berakot). See also
shemonah esreh.
berit or brit (Heb., covenant) Used in Judaism especially for the special relationship believed to
exist between God and the Jewish people.(See circumcision)
bet/beit midrash (Heb.); see also midrash, synagogue In Judaism, a place (beit = house) of study,
discussion, and prayer; in ancient times a school of higher learning (see, for example,
house of Hillel). Similarly, bet am (house of people), bet kneset (house of assembly)
and bet tefilla (house of prayer) are designations for locations/functions that came to
be included in the general term synagogue; bet din (house of judgment) refers to a
halakic law court (see also sanhedrin).
Bible (adj. biblical; from the Greek biblos meaning book) Designation normally used for
Jewish scriptures (TaNaK = Protestant Christian Old Testament; plus the Apocrypha
in classical Christianity) or Christian scriptures (OT plus the Christian New
Testament). See also canon, Quran, Septuagint.
bimah -
(from Greek beema, altar) Location in a synagogue from which worship (see liturgy)
is led.
birkat haminim (Heb., (bene)diction concerning heretics) A prayer that invoked divine wrath upon
Christian Jews and other heterodox Jewish groups. 12th section of the shemoneh esre.
brit (or berit) milah (Heb., "covenant of circumcision")
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C
calendar In general, Christianity operates on a solar calendar based on the relationship between
the sun and the earth (365.25 days per year). The main Christian observances are
Easter, Pentacost, and Christmas. The Islamic calendar is lunar, based on the
relationship of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are
equal to about 103 lunar years. Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three
years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus lunisolar. The
oldest Jewish annual observances are Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, Yom Kippur and
Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include Rosh ha-shana, Simhat Torah, Hannukah
and Purim.
cantor (from Latin, one who sings) in Hebrew Hazzan In Judaism, a reciter and
chanter/singer of liturgical materials in the synagogue; also used similarly in Christian
contexts (choir leader, etc).
celibacy The practice of refraining from sexual relationships in the interest of religious purity,
known in Judaism among the Essenes and developed extensively in Christianity (see
monk, priest).
chuppah In Judaism, the special canopy under which a marriage ceremony is conducted
circumcision (from Latin, to cut around) The minor surgical removal of the skin covering the tip of
the penis. In Judaism, it is ritually performed when a boy is eight days old in a
ceremony called brit milah, which indicates that the ritual establishes a covenant
between God and the individual. In Islam, it is performed at any time up to the age of
puberty, depending on the cultural tradition (e.g. birth, 7 years, puberty, etc.).
classical Judaism, Christianity, Islam The forms of the religions that have survived as traditional throughout the centuries.
See rabbinic, orthodox. See also conservative.
cohen See kohen. Priest (Judaism).
commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing, mitzvah). According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, there are 613
religious commandments referred to in the Torah (and elaborated upon by the rabbinic
sages). Of these, 248 are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers
respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed through all one's
bodily parts during all the days of the year. In general, a mitzvah refers to any act of
religious duty or obligation; more colloquially, a mitzvah refers to a "good deed."
conservative A term often used in religious discussions (frequently in express or implied contrast to
liberal or modernist) to indicate a relatively traditional (even classical) stance towards
the matters considered centrally important.
Conservative Judaism A modern development in Judaism, reacting to early Jewish Reform movements in an
attempt to retain clearer links to classical Jewish law while at the same time adapting
it to m odern situations. Its scholarly center in the US is the Jewish Theological
Seminary in New York.
covenant covenant A pact between two parties. The major covenants in Jewish scriptures are
God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 15), and the Sinai/Moses (Exodus 19-24)
between God and Israel. In Judaism, the covenant (Hebrew, brit) is a major
theological concept referring to the eternal bond between God and the people of Israel
grounded in God's gracious and steadfast concern (Hebrew, h.esed) that calls for the
nation's obedience to the divine commandments (mitzvot) and instruction (torah). For
Christianity (e.g. Paul), God has made a "new covenant" (rendered as "new testament"
in older English) with the followers of Jesus/Joshua in the last times, superseding the
"old covenant" (thus, "old testament") with Moses at Sinai (see Jeremiah 31.31-34).
cult (sometimes cultus, from Latin) A general term for formal aspects and
interrelationships of religious observance, often as focused on a particular
phenomenon (e.g. the temple cult, the cult of saints).
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D
David Jewish folkhero around 1000 BCE, to whom many biblical psalms are attributed and
who is credited with politically and militarily uniting the ancient Israelite king
amphictyony into a centralized kingdom with Jerusalem as its capital. David is said to
have planned for the Temple which his son and successor Solomon built.
Dead Sea Scrolls The site near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea in modern Israel (west bank)
where the main bulk of the Jewish "Dead Sea Scrolls" were discovered abound 1946.
The "Qumran community" that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have
flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is usually identified
with the Jewish Essenes, or a group like them. See Qumran.
decalogue A Greek term referring to the ten commandments (Heb. 'aseret hadibrot) received by
Moses on Mount Sinai according to Jewish scriptures (Exodus 2O.1-17; Deuteronomy
5.1-21).
deify (see deity) To make something or someone God-like.
diaspora Greek scattering. Often used to refer to the Jewish communities living among the
gentiles outside the holy land of Canaan/Israel/Palestine.
dietary laws , see kosher
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E
early Judaism , also sometimes called formative,proto-,middle, and even late Judaism Refers to
Judaism in the intertestamental period (and slightly later) as a development from the
religion of ancient Israel, but prior to the emergence of its classical, rabbinic form in
the early centuries CE.
Eden The name of paradise in the Jewish biblical account in Genesis 1, where Adam and
Eve were created.
ein sof (Heb., without limit) In Jewish kabbalism, a designation for the divine -- "the
unlimited one."
Elohim, El Hebrew general term for deity. See also YHWH
emuna (h) (Heb., "faith"; see Arabic iman) See faith.
eretz Yisrael/Israel (Heb., land of Israel) In Jewish thought, the special term for the Palestinian area
believed to have been promised to the Jewish people by God in the ancient covenant.
Essenes The name of a Jewish sub-group in the 1st century CE according to Josephus, Philo
and other sources. See also Qumran.
ethics (Greek, customs; see Latin mores [morals]) A general designation for value systems
governing human activities considered to be "right" or "wrong," usually with
reference to some "higher" authority (as in "you have no ethics" or "what are the
ethics of this situation?"); also refers to the study of such systems.
etiology (also aetiology), from the Greek for cause or origin A term used to describe or label
stories that claim to explain the reason for something being (or being called) what it
is. For example, in the old Jewish creation story (Genesis 2.23), woman (ishshah is
given that name because she has been taken out of (the side or rib of) man (ish).
etrog A citron; the fruit of goodly trees (Leviticus 23.40) carried in procession in the
synagogue with the lulab during the festival of Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles).
exilarch (Rosh Galut, from Greek, ruler of the exile; corresponds to Aramaic resh galuta, head
of the exile) A term used in early rabbinic Judaism for the head of the Jewish
community in exile in Babylonia. The exilarch was depicted as an imperial dignitary,
a member of the council of state, living in semi-royal fashion, who appointed
communal officers and judges and was a descendant of the house of David
exile The term refers to the various expulsions of Jews from the ancestral homeland. Over
time, it came to express the broader notion of Jewish homelessness and state of being
aliens. Thus, colloquially, "to be in galut" means to live in the diaspora and also to be
in a state of physical and even spiritual alienation in Hebrew galut.
existentialism A modern philosophical position that has influenced Jewish and Christian thought
significantly, with emphasis on the idea that meaningfulness must be created by
people, to whom only existence is given
Exodus (from Greek to exit or go out) Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see
also Passover) and to the biblical book (see Pentateuch) that tells of that event.
Ezra -
Name of a person in the Hebrew Bible with whom the reestablishment of Judaism in
Jerusalem in the 5th century BCE is associated. The events are recorded in a biblical
book known by his name, and he is also associated with apocryphal books and
traditions.
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F
fast, fasting A general term for the religious rite or practice of going without food at certain times
or for certain periods. See, Yom Kippur.
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G
Gabriel An angel or archangel from Jewish tradition who is closely associated with the virgin
birth in Christianity, and with the revelation of the Quran in Islam.
Gaon (pl. Geonim,; adj. geonic; Heb., eminence, excellence) A title given to the Jewish
head of the Babylonian academy and then to distinguished talmudic scholars in the
6th to 12th centuries.
Geiger, Abraham (1810-1874) Early Jewish reform advocate in Germany, noted for his scholarship, his
modern prayer book, and his advocacy for Judaism as a "world religion."
gemara (Heb., Aramic to Say) Popularly applied to the Jewish Talmud as a whole, to
discussions by rabbinic teachers on Mishnah, and to decisions reached in these
discussions. In a more restricted sense, the work of the generations of the amoraim in
completing Mishnah to produce the Talmuds.
gematria An interpretative device in rabbinic Judaism which focuses on the numerical value of
each word.
genizah (Heb., hiding) A hiding place or storeroom, usually connected with a Jewish
synagogue, for worn-out holy books. The most famous is the Cairo Genizah, which
contained books and documents that provide source material for Jewish communities
living under Islamic rule from about the 9th through the 12th centuries. It was
discovered at the end of the 19th century.
Gittin- Get -
(Heb.; sing get). Jewish practice related to divorce. A get is a Jewish divorce.
God A general designation for the deity (Hebrew Elohim, Yhwh; Greek Theos; Arabic
Allah).
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H
hacham (pl. hachamim; Heb., the wise) A Jewish title given to pre-70 CE proto-rabbinic
sages/scholars and post-70 CE rabbinic scholars.
haftara In Jewish liturgy, designates a specific section of the biblical prophets read in
synagogue services immediately after the corresponding Torah (Pentateuch) section
called the parasha(h).
haggada (From he word to learn the story of exodus from Egypt) "The Haggada(h)" is a
liturgical manual used in the Jewish Passover Seder and repeat.
halaka (h)/halakha (adj. halakic) Any normative Jewish law, custom, practice, or rite -- or the
entire complex. Halaka is law established or custom ratified by authoritative rabbinic
jurists and teachers. Colloquially, if something is deemed halakic, it is considered
proper and normative behavior.
halitzah A ceremony related to the Jewish Levirate law of marriage, which frees the widow to
marry someone other than her husband's brother. In this ceremony the widow removes
a shoe from her brother-in-law's foot, which is symbolic of removing his possessive
right over her. See also levirate marriage.
Hanukka (h) (Heb., dedication) A Jewish festival (of lights) that commemorates the
rededication of the Jerusalem temple after it was violated by the Greek,to more
*traditional modes of Jewish worship by Judah the Maccabee around 164 BCE. See
also calendar.
hasidim, hasidism (Heb., pious ones) The term may refer to Jews in various periods: (1) a group that
resisted the policies of Antiochus Epiphanes in the 2nd century BCE at the start of the
Maccabean revolt; (2) pietists in the 13th century; (3) followers of the movement of
Hasidism founded in the first half of the 18th century by Israel Ba'al Shem Tov.
haskalah (Heb.) Jewish rationalistic enlightenment in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
Europe. See maskilim, Mendelson, reform.
Hasmoneans Descendants of Hashmon, a Jewish family that included the Maccabees, the high
priests and kings who ruled Judea from 142 to 63 BCE.
havdalah (Heb., separation) The Jewish ceremony using wine, spices, and candles at the
conclusion of the Sabbath. Smelling the spices signifies the hope for a fragrant week;
the light signifies the hope for a week of brightness and joy.
heaven A term used variously to designate such locations as the abode of deity, or the place
where those favored by God will ultimately arrive, or an area of (spiritual) activity
above the material earth, or the place where spiritual/ideal realities abide. See also
paradise.
Hebrew (from Heb. to pass over, cross over) An old name given to the people of Israel, and
also to their language.
hell (also hades [Greek]) Place of punishment for the departed dead who do not attain to
heaven, See also sheol, Satan.
hellenism (adj. hellenistic; Greek word for "Greekish") The civilization that spread from Greece
through much of the ancient world from 333 (Alexendar the Great) to 63 (dominance
of Rome) BCE. As a result, many elements of Greek culture (names, language,
philosophy, athletics, architecture, etc.) penetrated the Near East and certain groups of
Jews in Israel.
hermeneutics Principles of interpretation (from the Greek, to interpret, translate). The term is often
used with reference to the study of Jewish and Christian scriptures.
Herzl, Theodor Hungarian Jewish author of Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) in 1896 and consider to
be the founder of the modern secular political Zionism
Hillel Often called by the title "the Elder." Probably a Babylonian, Hillel was an important
sage of the early Jewish period in Palestine around the turn of the era. His teachings
convey the Pharisaic ideal, through many epigrams on humility and peace (found in
Sayings of the Fathers 1-2); and were fundamental in shaping the Pharisaic traditions
and modes of interpretation. In rabbinic lore, Hillel is famous for a negative
formulation of the "golden rule" (recited to a non- Jew): "What is hateful to you do
not do to your fellow man. That is the whole Torah, the rest is commentary. Go and
learn it." His style of legal reasoning is continued by his disciples, known as *Beit
Hillel ("House/School of Hillel"), and is typically contrasted with that of Shammai (a
contemporary) and his school.
holocaust (from Greek, entire burnt offering) A term used in recent times to refer to the Nazi
German policy to exterminate the Jewish people in the second world war period
humanism A modern term used (sometimes pejoratively) of the position that focuses on human
values and needs without special concern for arbitrary religious traditions or values.
Also applied more traditionally to the embracing of classical Greek and Latin values,
rediscovered through classical learning (as contrasted to late Medieval scholasticism;
see also renaissance).
huppah or chuppah (Heb.) In Judaism, the special canopy under which a marriage ceremony is conducted.
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I
idolatry A Greek term for t he worship of what are perceived to be "idols" or false "gods,"
forbidden in the biblical traditions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Isaac One of the Israelite patriarchs, son of Abraham and father of Jacob, in the accounts in
the book of Genesis.
Israel A name given to the Jewish patriarch Jacob according to the etiology of Genesis
32.38. In Jewish biblical times, this name refers to the northern tribes, but also to the
entire nation. Historically, Jews have continued to regard themselves as the true
continuation of the ancient Israelite national-religious community. The term thus has a
strong cultural sense. In modern times, it also refers to the political state of Israel.
Christians came to consider themselves to be the "true" Israel, thus also a continuation
of the ancient traditions.
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J
Jacob -
One of the Israelite patriarchs, son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham, in the accounts
in the book of Genesis.
Jehovah Mechanical attempt to represent the special Jewish name for deity, YHWH.
Jerusalem From the religious viewpoints of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the main city in
ancient Palestine (= modern Israel), where the Temple of David/Solomon had been
located, Jesus/Joshua had been crucified/resurrected, Muhammad had journeyed to
heaven (his miraj), among other significant things. Thus for all three religions, in
some senses Jerusalem is a or the "holy city."
Jesus/Joshua (Jesus is the Greek attempt to transliterate the Semitic name Joshua) The somewhat
mysterious Palestinian popular figure from the 1st century CE whose death and
alleged resurrection as God's Messiah/Christ became foundational for an early Jewish
sub-group known as Nazarenes, from which Christianity ultimately developed as a
separate religion.
Jew From the Hebrew name of the patriarch Judah, whose name also came to designate
the tribe and tribal district in which Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of
Judah and members of the tribe of Judah come to be called Judahites or, in short form,
Jews. The religious outlook associated with these people after about the 6th century
BCE comes to be called 'Judaism,' and has varying characteristics at different times
and places: see especially early Judaism, rabbinic Judaism. See also
Hebrew(s)rael'>Israel.' style='display:none' />
Josephus or Flavius Josephus Jewish general and author in the latter part of the 1st century CE who wrote a massive
history (Antiquities) of the Jews and a detailed treatment of the Jewish revolt against
Rome in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it), among other things.
Judah the Prince (Heb., haNasi) Head of the rabbinic Jewish community in Palestine around 200 CE.
Credited with publication of the Mishnah
Judaism, Jew From the Hebrew name of the patriarch Judah, whose name also came to designate
the tribe and tribal district in which Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of
Judah and members of the tribe of Judah come to be called Judahites or, in short form,
Jews. The religious outlook associated with these people after about the 6th century
BCE comes to be called "Judaism," and has varying characteristics at different times
and places: see especially early Judaism, rabbinic Judaism. See also
Hebrew(s)rael">Israel.
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K
Kabala(h) or Kabbala(h) (Kabalism) (Heb. qabbala, receiving, tradition) A system of Jewish theosophy and mysticism. See
also kavanah, Zohar.
kaddish A classical Jewish prayer (mostly in Aramaic) with eschatological focus extolling
God's majesty and kingdom recited at the conclusion of each major section of each
liturgical service; a long version (called rabbinic kaddish) follows an act of study; also
a prayer by mourners during the first year of bereavement (see shiva,*sheloshim) and
on the anniversary of the death of next-of-kin. Compare the Christian "Lord's Prayer,"
Islam's Fatiha.
kahal (qahal) (Heb., congregation, gathering) Used to refer to the corporate Jewish community of
medieval Europe. See also synagogue,.
Karaism, Karaites Derived from Heb. qara, scripture. A Middle Eastern heterodox Jewish group that
arose in opposition to Rabbinism in the 8th century CE, and emphasized the written
scriptures while criticizing the rabbinic use of oral law.
kasher, kashrut See kosher.
kavanah (Heb., intention) A mystical instrument of the Jewish kabalists; a meditation which
accompanies a ritual act.
kehilla(h) (Heb., community) Jewish sense of community, in a particular sense, within the
larger kneset Israel
keneset Israel (Heb.) Assembly of Israel, or the Jewish people as a whole. See kehilla; compare Christian
church.
ketuva(h) or ketuba(h) (Heb.) traditional Jewish marriage contract. The ketuba is usually read during the
marriage ceremony, under the bridal canopy the purpose of the Ketuba is to secure the
rights of the woman See also *get.
Ketuvim or Ketubim (Heb., The third and last division of the classical Jewish Bible (TaNaK), including large
poetic and epigrammatic works such as Psalms and Proverbs and Job as well as a
miscellany of other writings (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Qohelet, Esther,
Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles).
kiddush (Heb., sanctification; derived from kadosh (qadosh), holy) A ritual of Jewish sabbath
and other holy days, usually accompanied by a cup of wine, which proclaims the
holiness of the day.
kiddushin (Heb., Denotes Jewish betrothal for marriage, signifying the sanctity of the relationship.
kiphah A Jewish headcovering worn for worship, religious study, meals, or at any other time;
also called yarmulke.
kohen or cohen (pl. kohanim; Heb.) An Israelite priest, generally descended from the tribe of Levi. A functionary usually
associated, in antiquity (including early Judaism), with temples and their rites
(including sacrifice)
kosher (Heb., kasher) Proper or ritually correct; kashrut refers to ritually correct Jewish dietary practices.
Traditional Jewish dietary laws are based on biblical legislation. Only land animals
that chew the cud and have split hooves (sheep, beef; not pigs, camels) are permitted
and must be slaughtered in a special way. Further, meat products may not be eaten
with milk products or immediately thereafter. Of sea creatures, only those (fish)
having fins and scales are permitted. Fowl is considered a meat food and also has to
be slaughtered in a special manner
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L
law See torah, commandments, oral and written law, halaka, Shulhan Aruch.
leaven A fermenting substance used to make bread dough rise, making it lighter with air
bubbles. In Jewish ritual, leaven is not premitted at passover time, when "unleavened"
bread (matzah) is a major symbol. Classical Christianity has also been influenced by
this prohibition in its Easter and eucharist practices (see host).
levirite marriage From the Latin levir for the Hebrew yabam, brother-in-law; a biblical system of
marriage in which the levir marries his brother's widow (Deuteronomy 25.5-10).
liberal -
(from Latin, free [thinker]) A general term used in religion discussions to indicate a
person or view that breaks significantly from the conservative traditional position(s).
See also modernist
literalist A general term used in religion discussions to indicate a person or view that attempts
to interpret the scriptures and other recognized classical religious authorities in a
straightforward, literal manner. See also fundamentalism, verbal inspiration, allegory.
liturgy (adj. liturgical) Rites of public worship, usually institutionalized in relation to temple, synagogue,
church, kaba, or mosque locations and traditions, but also in other formalized
observances see also:, prayer, shema, , siddur.
lulab The palm branch used with other plants in the Jewish Sukkot (Tabernacles)
celebration.
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M
maariv (from Heb., "evening") Jewish synagogue evening prayer or service. See also liturgy.
Maccabee(s) See Hasmoneans, hasidim, Hannuka
Machzor the special prayer book used on holidays
magen David (Heb., "shield of David") The distinctive six-pointed Jewish star, used especially since
the 17th century.
maggid (Heb., a speaker) A kabalistic notion of how the holy spirit is mediated to the mystic;
later meant a preacher among the eighteenth-century Hasidim.
Maimonides or Moses ben Maimon A major medieval rabbi, physician, scientist, and philosopher
(1135-1204), known by the acronym RaMBaM (Rabbi Moses ben Maimon). Born in
Spain, Maimonides fled from persecution to Morocco and finally settled in Egypt. His
Major works include a legal commentary on the Mishnah, a law code called Mishnah
Torah, and the preeminent work of medieval Jewish rational philosophy, The Guide
of the Perplexed.
mainstream Refers to what now appears to be, or to have been, the influential majority (or
dominant authority) in a continuum; see classical, orthodox, traditional.
Marranos An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who
converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism.
maskilim (Heb., the enlightened ones) Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Jews who engaged in
secular rationalistic studies and facilitated the acculturation of Jews to Western
society; members of the haskalah.
Masoretes, Masoretic text Derived from masorah, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninthcentury Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called
the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary synagogues. The Masoretes
were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by
establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and
pronunciation.
matzah Jewish unleavened bread used at Passover.
megillah (Heb., scroll) Usually refers to the biblical scroll of Esther read on the festival of
Purim. Or, if indefinite, one of the five megilloth.
megilloth (Heb., plural of megillah, scrolls) One of five biblical scrolls in the Ketuvim: Ruth,
Esther, Qoheleth, Song of Songs, and Lamentations. One of the scrolls is read on
major feast and fast days; for example, Esther is read on the festival of Purim and the
Song of Songs is read during Passover.
melakah (Heb.) Work.
Mendelssohn, Moses (1729-86) Important German Jewish thinker whose ideas helped lay the base for
Reform Judaism (see haskala).
menorah Jewish Symbol, candelabrum with special religious significance; a nine-branched
menorah is used at Hannukah, while the seven-branched was used in the ancient
Temple.
merkabah -
(Heb., chariot) The chariot vision was an integral element of mysticism signifying a
mystical vision of divinity.
messiah Lit "anointed one"; Greek christos Ancient priests and kings (and sometimes
prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a
royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of
Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure.
The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was
believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others
believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after
divine judgment and destruction.
mezuzah (pl. mezuzot; Heb., doorpost) A parchment scroll with selected Torah verses
(Deuteronomy 6.4-9; 11.13-21) placed in a container and affixed to the exterior
doorposts (at the right side of the entrance) of observant Jewish homes (see
Deuteronomy 6.1-4), and sometimes also to interior doorposts of rooms. The word
shaddai (almighty) usually is inscribed on the back of the container.
mezuzah (pl. mezuzot; Heb., "doorpost") A parchment scroll with selected Torah verses
(Deuteronomy 6.4-9; 11.13-21) placed in a container and affixed to the exterior
doorposts (at the right side of the entrance) of observant Jewish homes (see
Deuteronomy 6.1-4), and sometimes also to interior doorposts of rooms. The word
shaddai (almighty) usually is inscribed on the back of the container.
midrash (pl. midrashim) From Heb. darash, to inquire, whence it comes to mean exposition (of
scripture). Refers to the "commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that
attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash may
focus either on halaka, directing the Jew to specific patterns of religious practice, or
on (h)aggada, dealing with theological ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy,
imaginative exposition, legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not
halaka.
mikveh or mikvah See miqvah
milhemet mitzvah From Heb, war of the covenant;
mincha(h) (from Heb. for afternoon sacrifice) Afternoon prayers in Jewish synagogue.
minyan A quorum of ten Jews (for Orthodox Jews, ten males) above age thirteen necessary
for public services and certain other religious ceremonies to be considered valid.
miqvah or mikveh (Heb.) A Jewish communal, ritual bath (like baptism) for washing away ritual
impurity by immersion.
Miracle in Heb “Nes” Miracle in Heb “Nes” A general term for special events that seem inexplicable by
normal (rational) means.
Mishnah (Heb., teaching) The digest of the recommended Jewish oral halaka as it existed at the
end of the 2nd century and was collated, edited, and revised by Rabbi Judah the
Prince. The code is divided into six major units and sixty-three minor ones. The work
is the authoritative legal tradition of the early *sages and is the basis of the legal
discussions of t he Talmud. See also pilpul.
mitnaged (pl. mitnagaim; Heb., opposer(s)) Traditionalist and rationalistic Jewish opponents of
eighteenth-century Jewish Hasidism.
mitzvah (pl. mitzvot; Heb., commandment, obligation) A ritual or ethical duty or act of
obedience to God's will. See also commandments.
monolithic (Greek, composed of a single stone) Usually used with reference to rigid, fixed,
unchanging systems -- often in negative statements, such as Judaism was by no means
monolithic.
monotheism (Greek, one deity) The belief that there is only one real and ultimate deity.
morals (Latin, customs) See ethics
Moses The great biblical personality (c. thirteenth century BCE) who is credited with leading
the people of Israel out of Egyptian bondage and teaching them the divine laws at
Sinai. He is also described as first of the Jewish prophets. Throughout Jewish history
he is the exalted man of faith and leadership without peer.
mystic, mysticism (adj. mystical; from Greek for initiant into religious mysteries) A vaguely used term
to indicate certain types of behavior or perspective that goes beyond the rational in the
quest of what is considered to be the ultimate in religious experience (often described
as union or direct communion with deity). See also kabalah,
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N
nabi or navi (Heb., pl. nebiim; also Arabic) A prophet in ancient Israel; became a designation for
a section of the Jewish scriptures; see TaNaK.
nasi (Heb., prince, leader) See Judah the Prince.
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O
observance, observant Refers primarily to religious rules and practices, and to those who are rigorous about
keeping them; see calendar, cult, liturgy, commandments, halaka, law, torah, tradition
(etc.).
Old Testament (= OT) The name traditionally given by Christians to the Jewish biblical writings that
together with the New Testament constitute the Christian Bible. For most Protestant
Christians, OT is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for classical (Roman
Catholic, Greek Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also includes "the Apocrypha."
omer (Heb., sheaf) In Judaism, the sheaf of grain offering brought to the temple during
Passover, on Nisan 16; thus also the name of the seven-week period between
Passover/Pesah and Shabuot also known as the Sephirah. See also calendar.
oral law In traditional Jewish pharisaic/rabbinic thought, God reveals instructions for living
through both the written scriptures and through a parallel process of orally transmitted
traditions. Critics of this approach within Judaism include Sadducees and Karaites.
orthodox From the Greek for "correct opinion/outlook," as opposed to heterodox or heretical.
The judgment that a position is "orthodox" depends on what are accepted as the
operative "rules" or authorities at the time. Over the course of history, the term
"orthodox" has come to denote the dominant surviving forms that have proved
themselves to be "traditional" or "classical" or "mainstream" (e.g. rabbinic Judaism;
the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christian churches; sunni Islam), although
new, relative "orthodoxies" constantly emerge (and often disappear). See also neoorthodoxy, orthopraxy.
orthopraxy -
(Greek, correct action/activity) In contrast to orthodoxy (right belief), the emphasis in
this term concerns conduct, both ethical and liturgical. Historically, Judaism and
Islam have tended to emphasize orthopraxy relatively more than orthodoxy, while
classical Christianity tended to shift the balance in the other direction.
OT = Old Testament
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P
Palestine (Greek form representing Philistines, for the seacoast population encountered by early
geographers) An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and
Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly,
modern Israel.
paradise (Greek, park, garden; possibly derived from Heb. pardes) Term used to describe the
location of the creation of humankind (see garden of Eden) as well as the destination
where those favored by God will ultimately arrive (especially in Islam). Also used in
apocalyptic texts for one of the heavens or levels above the inhabited earth, near God.
parasha (h) (Heb., section) Prescribed weekly section of biblical Torah (Pentateuch) read in
Jewish synagogue liturgy (ordinarily on an annual cycle). See haftarah.
pareve, or parve (Yiddish) A Yiddish word identifying food that is neither milk nor meat. According to
Jewish halakhah, foods that are pareve may be eaten with either dairy or meat. It now
has the added connotation of bland or neutral.
Passover (Hebrew pesah) The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also
known as hag hamatzot (festival of unleavened bread, commemorating the Exodus or
deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts
eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A
special ritual meal (called the Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the
Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See calendar,
liturgy;
Pentateuch (from Greek for five scrolls) The five books attributed to Moses: Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as Torat Mosheh
(the teaching of Moses), or simply the Torah.
Pentecost -
(Greek for "50th [day]") See Shabuot/Shavuot, calendar.
Perushim See Pharisees.
Pesach See Passover, calendar.
Pharisees (Hebrew perushim, lit. separatists (?); adj. pharisaic) The name given to a group or
movement in early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars
identify them with the later sages and rabbis who taught the oral and written law;
Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists,
distinct from the proto-rabbis. According to Josephus (see also NT), the Pharisees
believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between
predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative oral
law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading
opponents of Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with scribes but
distinguished from the Sadducees.
Philo Judeus (= the Jew) of Alexandria Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author in the
1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman
(hellenistic) world outside of Palestine.
pilpul Dialectical rational method of studying Jewish oral law as codified in the Talmud(s).
Pittsburg Platform Early statement of American Reform Jewish principles.
piyyutim Medieval Jewish synagogue hymns and poems added to standard prayers of the
talmudic liturgy.
pogrom From the Russian word for devastation; an unprovoked attack or series of attacks
upon a Jewish community.
prayer A general term used for addressing petitions (or praise) to the deity. See amida, ,
kaddish, , maariv, mincha, shemoneh esreh. See also hymn, liturgy, siddur.
predestination The idea that one's eternal destiny is determined beforehand, from the beginning of
time, by the will and plan of the deity.
priest (see also kohen) prophet (from Greek, to speak for or speak forth) Name given to
accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, false prophets). Became a
designation for a section of the Jewish scriptures; see nabi, TaNaK.
proto-rabbis Pre-70 CE sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE rabbinic Judaism before the
ordination of rabbis became formalized in its classical sense.
pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek pseudos, deceit, untruth, and epigraphe, writing,
inscription A name given to a number of intertestamental apocryphal writings that are
implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, Abraham,
Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc.
Purim A Jewish festival commemorating the deliverance of Jews in Persia as described in
the biblical book of Esther. Held in late winter (between Hannukah and Passover), on
the 14th of Adar. See calendar. megillah
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Q
qabbala (Heb.) See kabala.
Qumran or Khirbet Qumran The site near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea in modern Israel (west bank)
where the main bulk of the Jewish Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered abound 1946.
The Qumran community that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have flourished
from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is usually identified with the
Jewish Essenes, or a group like them.
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R
rabbi (adj. rabbinic) Hebrew, my master, an authorized teacher of the classical Jewish
tradition (see oral law) after the fall of the second Temple in 70 CE. The role of the
rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve
as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is
conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its
responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism.
RaSHI -
Acronym for Rabbi Solomon (= Sholomo) ben Isaac (1040-1105), a great medieval
sage of Troyes, France. He is the author of fundamental commentaries on the Talmud,
and one of the most beloved and influential commentaries on the Bible. Characterized
by great lucidity and pedagogy, his comments emphasized the plain, straightforward
sense of a text.
rebbe The title of the spiritual leader of the Hasidim; see zaddik.
Rechabites A dissenting movement in ancient Israel generally devoted to certain ascetic practices
and a simple lifestyle (see Jeremiah 35.1-19).
Reconstructionist Judaism Founded by Mordecai M. Kaplan (1881-1982), this represents a recent development
in American Judaism, and attempts to focus on Judaism as a civilization and culture
constantly adapting to insure survival in a natural social process. The central
academic institution is the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in the Philadelphia
suburbs. See also Reform and Conservative Judaism.
redactor An editor, especially with reference to ancient books such as the Jewish and Christian
scriptures
Reform Judaism Modern movement originating in 18th century Europe that attempts to see Judaism as
a rational religion adaptable to modern needs and sensitivities. The ancient traditions
and laws are historical relics that need have no binding power over modern Jews. See
Pittsburg Platform, Geiger. The central academic institution of American Reform
Judaism is the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, and it is represented also by the
Central Conference of American Rabbis. Compare Conservative and
Reconstructionist Judaism.
relativism The modern position that affirms that everything (except this statement!) is relative to
the particularities of the given situation.
religion A general term for a system of beliefs and/or practices thought to enhance human
contact with realities otherwise inaccessible or unperceived.
responsa Also called teshubot, from sheelot uteshubot (questions and answers); answers to
questions on halaka and observances, given by Jewish scholars on topics addressed to
them. They originated during the geonic period, and are still used as a means of
modern updating and revision of halaka..
Rosh Hashanah -
(Heb., beginning of the year) Jewish New Year celebration in the fall of the year, the
month of Tishri. See also calendar.
Rosh Hodesh (Heb., beginning of a lunar month) The New Moon Festival. See also calendar.
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S
Sabbath The seventh day of the week (Heb., shabbat), recalling the completion of the creation
and the Exodus from Egypt. It is a day symbolic of new beginnings and one dedicated
to God, a most holy day of rest. The commandment of rest is found in the Bible and
has been elaborated by the rabbis. It is a special duty to study Torah on the Sabbath
and to be joyful. Sabbaths near major festivals (see calendar) are known by special
names.
Sabbatianism A messianic movement begun in the 17th century by Sabbatai Zvi/Zebi (1626-1676),
who ultimately converted to Islam.
sacrifice (Latin, perform a sacred act) A general term for the giving up of things of value for
religious purposes, such as (1) liturgical sacrifices of animal life or of other valuables
(grain, wine, etc.), and (2) personal sacrifices of time or money or talents or potential
Sadducees An early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose
early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the Temple was destroyed in
70 CE. Sadducees supported priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly
grounded in the Pentateuch, such as the concept of personal, individual life after
death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the Pharisees.
sage For Judaism, see hakam.
Samaritans Another of the numerous sub-groups in early Judaism (see also Sadducees, Pharisees,
Essenes) and residents of the district of Samaria north of Jerusalem and Judah in what
is now Israel. They are said to have recognized only the Pentateuch as scripture and
Mt. Gerizim as the sacred center rather than Jerusalem. There was ongoing hostility
between Samaritans and Judahites. Samaritan communities exist to the present.
Sanhedrin -
(from Greek for assembly [of persons seated together]; see also synagogue, church) A
legislative and judicial body from the period of early Judaism and into rabbinic times.
Traditionally composed of 71 members.
Satan (Hebrew, "accuser/adversary") The opponent of God (or of God's supporters) in
Hebrew tradition (and thence into Christianity and Islam) who is often depicted as a
fallen angel (also called "the Devil"; in Arabic Iblis) amd is considered to be in charge
of evil and its influences (with "demons" as his aides), and to rule over Hell until the
final judgment (see yawm al-din).
scholasticism A general term for highly organized and highly rationalistic scholarly developments
and discussions according to well developed conventions. In Christianity, the rise of
universities in 12th-13th century Europe was a high-point for scholasticism (e.g.
Thomas Aquinas). Judaism and Islam experienced similar scholastic flourishing in
that general period in the west (and earlier in the east, especially for Islam).
scholasticism A general term for highly organized and highly rationalistic scholarly developments
and discussions according to well developed conventions. In Christianity, the rise of
universities in 12th-13th century Europe was a high-point for scholasticism (e.g.
Thomas Aquinas). Judaism and Islam experienced similar scholastic flourishing in
that general period in the west (and earlier in the east, especially for Islam).
scriptures General designation for canonical or biblical writings.
sect A general designation for a definable sub-group, often with negative overtones. See
also cult.
secular (Latin, of this world) A general term for non-religious, or the opposite of religious.
seder (Heb., for order; pl. sedarim) The traditional Jewish evening service and opening of
the celebration of Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The
order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the
Passover Haggadah. Also one of the six divisions of the Mishna; or one of the 154
sections into which Torah/Pentateuch is divided for a three year cycle of liturgical
readings in synagogue. See also siddur.
semikah (Heb.) Rabbinic ordination., the process of investing a person with ministerial or
rabbinic priestly office and authority.
Sephardim -
(adj. Sephardic; Heb., Sephardi) The designation Sepharad in biblical times refers to a
colony of exiles from Jerusalem (Obadiah 20), possibly in or near Sardis{??}; in the
medieval period, Sephardi(c) Jews are those descended from those who lived in Spain
and Portugal (the Iberian peninsula) before the expulsion of 1492. As a cultural
designation, the term refers to the complex associated with Jews of this region and its
related diaspora in the Balkans and Middle East (especially in Islamic countries). The
term is used in contradistinction to Ashkenazi, but it does not refer, thereby, to all
Jews of non-Ashkenazi origin.
sephira (h) or sefira (Heb., "counting, number"; pl. sefirot) See also omer. In Jewish kabala,
the sefirot are the primary emanations or manifistations of deity that together make up
the fulness (pleroma) of the godhead.
Septuagint Strictly speaking, refers to the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch,
probably made during the reign of Ptolemy II, Greek ruler of Egypt around 250 BCE.
Subsequently, Greek translations of other portions of the Jewish scriptures came to be
added to the corpus, and the term Septuagint was applied to the entire collection. Such
collections served as the "scriptures" for Greek speaking Jews and Christians.
shabbat -
Shabbatai Zvi See Sabbatianism.
Shammai See Hillel.
Shavuot/Shabuot (Pentecost; Heb., weeks) Observed 50 days from the day the first sheaf of grain was
offered to the priest; also known as Festival of First Fruits. See calendar.
Shekinah Jewish term for the divine presence; the Holy Spirit. In Kabalism it sometimes took
on the aspect of the feminine element in deity.
Shema (Heb., hear) Title of the fundamental, monotheistic statement of Judaism, found in
Deut. 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD is our God, the LORD is One"; shema Yisrael
YHWH elohenu YHWH ehad). This statement avers the unity of God, and is recited
daily in the liturgy (along with Deut. 6:5-9, 11.13-21; Num. 15.37-41 and other
passages), and customarily before sleep at night. This proclamation also climaxes
special liturgies (like Yom Kippur), and is central to the confession before death and
the ritual of martyrdom. The Shema is inscribed on the mezuzah and the tefillin. In
public services, it is recited in unison.
Shemini Atzeret -
(the Eighth Day of Assembly) An eight-day festival that immediately follows the
seven-day festival of Sukkot (Tabernacles). See also calendar.
shemoneh esreh (Heb., "eighteen") The main section of Jewish prayers recited in a standing position
(see amida) and containing 19 (yes!) "benedictions": praise to (1) God of the
fathers/patriarchs, (2) God's power and (3) holiness; prayers for (4) knowledge, (5)
repentance, (6) forgiveness, (7) redemption, (8) healing sick persons, (9) agricultural
prosperity, (10) ingathering the diaspora, (11) righteous judgment, (12) punishment of
wicked and heretics (birkat haminim, (13) reward of pious, (14) rebuilding Jerusalem,
(15) restoration of royal house of David, (16) acceptance of prayers, (17) thanks to
God, (18) restoration of Temple worship, and (19) peace.
sheol (Heb.) Place of departed dead in (some) ancient Israel thought, without reference to
punishments and rewards. See also hell, heaven.
shiva (Heb., seven) Seven days of mourning after the burial of a close relative (as in, "to sit
shiva"). See also abelut, shloshim.
shloshim (Heb., thirty) An intermediate stage of 30 days of less severe mourning, including
shiva.
shofar In Jewish worship, Ram's horn sounded at Rosh Hashanah morning worship and at
the conclusion of Yom Kippur, as well as other times in that period during the fall.
Shulhan Aruch (Heb., prepared table) A code of Jewish law attributed to Joseph Karo in 1565 CE,
which became authoritative for classical Judaism.
siddur (from Heb., to order) Jewish prayer book used for all days except special holidays
(see seder). See also liturgy.
Simhat Torah (Heb., rejoicing with the Torah) A festival which celebrates the conclusion of the
annual reading cycle of the Torah. See calendar.
sopher or sofer (pl. sopherim; Heb., scribe) Used as a general designation for scholars and copyists in
both talmudic and later literature; a "scholastic," a learned researcher whose vocation
was the study and teaching of the tradition. In early times the sopher was the scholar.
By the 1st century he was no longer a real scholar but a functionary and teacher of
children.
Sukkot (Tabernacles) (Heb., booths, tabernacles) Seven-day Jewish fall festival beginning on
Tishri 15 commemorating the sukkot where Israel lived in the wilderness after the
Exodus; also known as hag haasiph, the Festival of Ingathering (of the harvest). See
also calendar.
synagogue (Greek for gathering) The central insitution of Jewish communal worship and study
since antiquity (see also bet midrash), and by extension, a term used for the place of
gathering. The structure of such buildings has changed, though in all cases the ark
containing the Torah scrolls faces the ancient Temple site in Jerusalem.
syncretism (Greek for "draw together, combine") Synthesis of variegated religious beliefs derived
from more than one religion or cultural/religious tradition. See also eclectic,
assimilation.
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T
tallit A large, four-cornered shawl with fringes and special knots at the extremities, worn
during Jewish morning prayers. The fringes, according to the Bible (Numbers 15.3839), remind the worshiper of God's commandments. It is traditional for the male to be
buried in his tallit, but without its fringes.
Talmud (Heb., study or learning) Rabbinic Judaism produced two Talmuds: the one known as
"Babylonian" is the most famous in the western world, and was completed around the
fifth centuty CE; the other, known as the "Palestinian" or "Jerusalem" Talmud, was
edited perhaps in the early fourth century CE. Both have as their common core the
Mishnah collection of the tannaim, to which are added commentary and discussion
(gemara) by the amoraim (teachers) of the respective locales. Gemara thus has also
become a colloquial, generic term for the Talmud and its study.
TaNaK (Tanakh) A relatively modern acronym for the Jewish Bible, made up of the names of
the three parts Torah (Pentateuch or Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim
(Writings) -- thus TNK pronounced TaNaK.
tanna (Heb., repeater, reciter; adj. tannaitic, pl. tannaim) A Jewish sage from the period of
Hillel (around the turn of the era) to the compilation of the Mishnah (200 CE),
distinguished from later amoraim. Tannaim were primarily scholars and teachers. The
Mishnah, Tosefta, and halakic Midrashim were among their literary achievements.
Targum -
(Heb., translation, interpretation) Generally used to designate Aramaic translations of
the Jewish scriptures. See also Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums).
tefillin Usually translated as phylacteries. Box-like appurtenances that accompany prayer,
worn by Jewish adult males at the weekday morning services. The boxes have leather
thongs attached and contain scriptural excerpts. One box (with four sections) is placed
on the head, the other (with one section) is placed (customarily) on the left arm, near
the heart. The biblical passages emphasize the unity of God and the duty to love God
and be mindful of him with "all one's heart and mind" (e.g. Exod. 13.1-10, 11-16;
Deut. 6.4-9; 11.13-21). See also Shema.
temple In the ancient world, temples were the centers of outward religious life, places at
which public religious observances were normally conducted by the priestly
professionals. In traditional Judaism, the only legitimate Temple was the one in
Jerusalem, built first by king Solomon around 950 BCE, destroyed by Babylonian
king Nebuchadnezzar around 587/6 BCE, and rebuilt about 70 years later. It was
destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The site of the ancient Jewish Temple is now
occupied, in part, by the golden domed "Dome of the Rock" Mosque. In recent times,
"temple" has come to be used synonymously with synagogue in some Jewish usage.
testament Term for an agreement between two (or more) parties, such as a "last will and
testament." In Jewish tradition, the covenant concept played an important role, and
was translated as "testament," especially in Christian references to the scriptures of
the "old covenant" (OT) and the "new" (NT).
theology From Greek, study of deity; a general term for discussions and investigations of things
pertaining to God(s), and by extension, to religious matters. One who engages
formally in theological studies is called a "theologian."
thirteen principles Statement of classical Jewish outlook (see belief) by Maimonides.
tithe Literally, a tenth part, usually with reference to prescribed or voluntary contributions
to one's religious community. "Tithing" is often used to refer in general to systematic
giving, without specific reference to the exact percentage..
Torah, torah (Heb., teaching, instruction) In general, torah refers to study of the whole gamut of
Jewish tradition or to some aspect thereof. In its special sense, "the Torah" refers to
the "five books of Moses" in the Hebrew scriptures (see Pentateuch). In the Quran,
"Torah" is the main term by which Jewish scripture is identified.
Tosefta (pl. Tosafot) (Heb., supplement) Tannaitic supplements to the Mishnah in the Talmud.
tradition(al) Something perceived to have been handed down (or passed along) from the past, often
considered authoritative. See also mainstream, classical, orthodox.
truth That which conforms to reality. For classical Judaism, Christianity and Islam, ultimate
truth is defined and determined in relation to the ultimate reality, God. "The Truth" is
attested as a way of referring to the deity in Islam (the execution of Hallaj is a
memorable example), and to Jesus in Christianity (Gospel of John).
tzaddik A general term for a righteous person in Jewish tradition. More specifically, the
spiritual leader of the modern Hasidim, popularly known as rebbe. See also saint.
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U
usury Old term for the principle of monetary interest, which is prohibited or limited under
certain conditions in the scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
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V
veneration A general term for religious devotion to a particular object or person. See zaddik,.
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Y
yarmulke See kiphah.
yeshivah (pl. yeshivot) A Jewish rabbinic academy of higher learning. See also beit midrash.
yetzer A technical Heb. term for human "inclination" to do good (yetzer ha-tov) or to do evil
(yetzer ha-ra).
YHWH -
(Yahweh) The sacred name of God in Jewish scriptures and tradition; also known as
the tetragrammaton. Since Hebrew was written without vowels in ancient times, the
four consonants YHWH contain no clue to their original pronunciation. They are
generally rendered "Yahweh" in contemporary scholarship. In traditional Judaism, the
name is not pronounced, but Adonai ("Lord") or something similar is substituted. In
most English versions of the Bible the tetragrammaton is represented by "LORD" (or
less frequently, "Jehovah").
Yiddish (from German Juedisch or Jewish) The vernacular of Ashkenazic Jews; it is a
combination of several languages, especially Hebrew and German, written in Hebrew
script.
yigdol/yigdal (from Heb., to be great; thence Great is he) A hymn/chant/poem from 11th century or
earlier, frequently found at the beginning or end of the Jewish prayer book (siddur).
Also found as an adopted Christian hymn.
Yom Kippur (Heb., Day of Atonement) Annual day of fasting and atonement, occurring in the fall
on Tishri 10 (just after Rosh Hashanah); the most solemn and important occasion of
the Jewish religious year. See also calendar.
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Z
zaddik (Heb., "righteous one") A general term for a righteous person in Jewish tradition.
More specifically, the spiritual leader of the modern Hasidim, popularly known as
rebbe.
Zdaka Charity (voluntary alms), going beyond the obligatory tax; righteous acts.
zealot (from Greek, to be enthusiastic) A general term for one who exhibits great enthusiasm
and dedication to a cause. Specifically, a member of an early Jewish group or
perspective that advocated Jewish independance (see theocracy) from Rome. See also
assassins.
zedakah (Heb., "righteousness"; see tzedakah) Term in Judaism usually applied to deeds of
charity and philanthropy
Zion, Zionism (Mount) Zion is an ancient Hebrew designation for Jerusalem, but already in biblical
times it began to symbolize the national homeland (see e.g. Psalm 137.1-6). In this
latter sense it served as a focus for Jewish national-religious hopes of renewal over the
centuries. Ancient hopes and attachments to Zion gave rise to Zionist longings and
movements since antiquity, culminating in the modern national liberation movement
of that name. The Zionist cause helped the Jews return to Palestine in this century and
found the state of Israel in 1948. The goal of Zionism is the political and spititual
renewal of the Jewish people in its ancestral homeland. See also Herzl.
zizit (Heb., fringes) See tallit.
Zohar Book of Splendor; the chief literary work of the kabalists. The author of the main part
of the Zohar was Moses de Leon (12th century) in Spain, but it is pseudepigraphically
ascribed to the Palestinian tanna Simeon bar Yohai (2nd century CE), sometimes
called RaShBaY (Rabbi Shimeon bar Yohai).