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THE
BC
5OO-44O
WORLD:
GREEK
249
'who were anned with whips, would, driae au)oy anyottß
whn øpproarhcd. Aristides once intendcd to tax
Pawønias with thß and expostula.te with hirn, but he
pul on afrown, told, Aristidns that he was occupicd, an'd'
refisedto listento him.
After this thc gencrals and' ødmirals of the
ph.e Athenians'l object being to compensate themseh¡es
for their losses by rauagíng th.e territory ofthc hing of
Persia.
THuqyDtDEs, Peloponnesian
Greeh
Wa4 trans. by
R. Wennen, p. 66
expedition, especially thase of Chins, Sam,os an'd' Lesbos,
approachcd Aristidcs and, pressed hirn to øccept the
suprenle command, and, rally aroun'd him th,e alLies who
had,long wished to be quit of Sparta an'd' to transfer
thcir support to Athnns. Arßtides nld them' that he
regørded, their proposøls as both necessary an'd
jwt.
Greehs'l aims probably itælu.d¿d also thcir
d,etermination to protect those Greek' states whírh had'
alreød,y reuohedfrom Persia and, to liberate those still
Phe
PLUTARcH, Thc Rí:e and' Fall of Ath'ens, trans. by
l. scorr-KlLVERT,
pp. 134"-5
undnrPersianrule,,,
J. FINE,
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How did Athens gain command of the I-,eague?
/.6e ,ources
o
Why were the Spartans unwilling to tølre the
leødership?
;
s Can you d,etect any d,ffiren'ces in the sources?
: How irnportant were the personalities of Aristides
and, Pausanías in the formation of the League?
The main reasons the Athenians became the leaders of a Greek alliance were:
o their kinship with the Ionian Greeks
o Spartan isolationism
o, Athens' naval strength and reputation after Salamis
o the role of individuals such as Pausanias and
Aristides.
The alliance is referred to by modern scholars as
the 'Delian League', but the Greeks themselves called
it the 'Athenians and their allies'. The term hegemon,
meaning leader of a group of states, was now applied
to the Athenians.
The purpose of the League
th,e lonians the oøth by whi'ch
they swore to haae thc samc ene¡ni,es and' the sam,e
fn nd* os the Athenians. h was in confi'rma,tion of this
oøth that they cast the hcauy pinces of iron into the sea.
ARtsrorLE, Constítutinnof Atherc, trans. by
K. von FRITZ & E. KAPP' pp.93-4
tng
What does Aristides say was the purpose of the
alliance?
:
Why were iron bars thrown into the sea?
s
How d,o the explanations of Thucyd'íd'es and Fine
dffir?
Membership of the League
siates joined the Delian League
at its outset. Chios, Lesbos and Samos were founding
members, as were most of the Ionian city-states in the'
It is uncertain which
northern Aegean and along the coast of Asia Minor'
Most of the states who joined ihe alliance were hoping
to be freed from the threat of Persian domination and
in trade with Athens. In 47817 BC
the Athenians invited all interested parties to a meetshared an interest
ing on the island of Delos.
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chosen.
Other reasons Delos was chosen were:
o it had an excellent harbour
o it was a cult centre for Apollo (an important
god for
all Greeks) and a sacred site
o it
was politically insignificant and therefore
unlikely to challenge Athenian supremacy.
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FIGURE 8. I f
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Members of the Peloponnesian League
Athenian colony
\w
-brENos
t,
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The Delian and, p^t ^^^^-n.ìnn. Leagues
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EPIRUS
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CRETE
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THE
o
or phoros
The Delian League did not have a written constitution,
and our knowledge of its workings can only be gleaned
from the writings of Thucydides, Plutarch and
Aristotle or pseudo-Xenophon (the possible authors of
a work on the Athenian constitution).
To fund the alliance and to carry out the purposes
of the League, money and ships were required. This
ophoros',
and all member states
tríbute was called lhe
were expected to contribute.
BC
5OO-44O
that Thucydides confused
Organisation of the League
The tribute
\MORLD:
GREEK
251
it with figures for a much
later period. The amount of tribute received by Athens
between 450 and 436, when the membership of the
League was much higher than at the beginning: û€v€r
exceeded 460 talents. From inscriptions on the acropolis, it is known that Aegina (Athens'old enemy) paid
the largest amount of tribute: 30 talents. Abdera and
Byzantium paid 15 talents each year.
Constitution of the League
The League consisted of independent states who met
in congress to make their decisions. However, it is
clear that the alliance was unequal from the beginning
because:
o
At this time thn offrcials ktwwn os 'Hell.enic Treasurers'
were
fi,rst appointnd by the Ath'eniø¡u. These offiriøls
receiaed, thn tribuæ, whi,ch was th,e nnme giaen to thc
contributions in rnoncy. Thc original sumfixedfor thc
tribute was 400 tal,ents. Thc treasury of th,e lcøgtrc was
the leadership was Athenian
Athens had the largest fleet
o Athens was superior in resources.
How did this congress operate? There are two differing views on this.
r
atDelos...
TH uqyD¡ DE s, Peloponnesian War, trans. by
R. I¡VARNER, p.6ó
lThe Greelæl øpplicd to
AristiÅ,es and, øppoinæd
th.e
Athcnia
ns
þr
thc seruices
The ch.oire lay benteen either a unicømcral or a
bicø,mcral d¿cision-making struÆture. In a unicameral
structure euery member, irælud,ing the h,egemnn, has
only one uote in a single chamber---<t simplc majority
decid,ing policy. In a bicaiæral strut:ture thcre are two
chambers, consisting of th,e h,egeman in onc chamber
and. thc rest of th.e allies in thc other chømber. Ecwh
chamber is cotutitutinnnlly equal in power to earh othcr,
and, thcrefore a polfuy is only authorßed'whcn both
charnbers aote infauour. If oræ chamber opposes the
of
him to suruey thc aarinw
territories and thcir ret)enues, and' thcn tofin th'eir
contributioru accord,ing to earh metnber's worth an'd,
ability to pay . . . he drew up th.e list of ossessmcnts rwt
only with scrupulou ir*egrity and justine, but also in
such a way that all th.e states feh they had, been
appropriøtely and. søtßfannrily dcah with . . . The tan
which Aristidcs imposed ømnunted, to 460 talcr*s.
proposed
polity
rejected,,
In
reo,ch¿d by
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Q,/n
us
tny
/6e sour"et
;
:
What were the allies expected to contribute?
s
In what ways did Athens control the Iæaguefrom
Who assessed th.e tribute? Who collected it?
the outset?
You will note that there is a contradiction in the figures given by Thucydides and Plutarch. This has been
much debated by historians, and many different explanations have been put forward. The figure is too high
for the initial stages of the League and it is thought
a ma,jority aerdi,ct within the chamber.
T. BucKLEY , Aspects
PLUTARc.H, Th,e Rise and Fall of Athens, trans. by
l. Sqorr-KtLYERT, pp. 131{
(Un
ønd. passes ø ueto, th,en thc policy is
this strurture thc alli¿s' d,ecßinn wou'ld' be
of Greek Hisnry, p. 192
lntt / on dtng an I
us
tng
/6e sources
:
:
t
How
d,o
you think this council operated?
What aoice did eøch rnember haae?
How did Atl¿ens exert íts leadership?
fnternal development of the League
Because there was no written constitution the
Athenians could change the rules to suit themselves.
No provision was made for members to leave the
League. Over a period of time, more members preferred to pay tribute rather than consume resources
and manpower in building ships.
252
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
As the Persian threat diminished, the League mem-
bers resented having to make contributions when
there was no longer any need. In 469 BC the first rumblings of dissatisfaction became evident. Naxos
attempted to seeede from the League, but Athens
responded by using Delian forces under Kimon to
besiege Naxos and force it to submit. In 465 Thasos,
the greatest contributor of ships, expressed its resentment at Athenian inter{erence in its gold-mining operations. The Athenian fleet defeated the fleet of Thasos
in a naval battle. The city of Thasos was besieged in
46543 BC. The people of Thasos were defeated by
the Athenians, who pulled down the city walls. The
Thasians lost their ships and mining interests, and
agreed to pay tribute. The Athenians sent colonists to
nearby Thrace.
Over a period of time, Athens reduced the independent states in the League to subject status. In M7 BC
the island of Euboea took advantage of the troubled
Zot ltscussion
How d,o you think other rnembers of the League,
unhappy about the contribution of ships and, money,
might feel about Athens after its treatnlerut of Naxos
and, Thasos?
Benefits for the allies
Despite the dissatisfaction of some members, there
were benefits for the allies:
o
Athenian currency, weights and measures had to be
used on pain of punishment. Although this was a
harsh measure, it facilitated trade. The Piraeus with
facilities for unloading ships and storing grain,
relations between Athens and Sparta and revolted.
became the port of the empire. Aegean waters were
Euboea was reclaimed by Athens a year later. By 440
BC only Chios, Lesbos and Samos were independent
members but in 440-339 BC Samos revolted. Athen
Trad,e-Athens imposed a coinage decree on the
allies. The date of its imposition is debated by
scholars. The decree banned the use of any nonAthenian coins in the cities of the League.
safer for trade when the pirates of Scyros were
defeated and enslaved
in476BC.
o Protection-the strong fleet of the Delian
compelled Samos to submit once more.
League
protected members against the renewed threat of
the Persians.
o
Gouernmenr-Athens strongly encouraged members
to establish democracies as their form of govern. . . No.ros left the League
ment. The allies had access to Athenian law courts.
and th¿ Athcnians mndc war
on th.e plore. Afier a sicge Naxos was forced, back to
allegiance. This was th.ertrú cose whcnthc original
corxtitutinn of thn Leøgue was broken and, øn øllicd city
lost its indcpen"dcrrce, and, th.e process was contimtcd, in
o Spoils-at the beginning of the League the allies
the coses of th,e other ølli,es as aøriaus circumstances
arose. Thn chinf reo.sons for th.ese reaolts were failures to
prod,ure thc right a,maunt of tribute or thc right numbers
of ships, and, somctimcs a refusal to prod.u.ce øny ships at
Disadvantages
all. For the Athenians i¡tsisted on obligations being
excrctly met, and, mnd.e th,emselaes unpopul,o,r by
bringing the seuerest pressure to bear on alli¿s whn were
tnt wed to mnking sorriftrces and did nat want to mak¿
th,ern, In other ways, too, thæ Athenians as rulers were ¡tn
longer populør as th,ey wed to be.
THUcyDrDEs, Pelnponncsian
We,r, trans. by
R. Wannen, p.67
Q/n dn.t /an
ú'ng
an
I
u stng
received booty from attacks on Persian territory
(e.g., the sale
ofslaves).
\
for the allies
o Loss of autonomy-the allies could not secede.
o Allies were unwilling to travel long distances to the
Athenian law courts.
o Payment
o
o
of tribute/ships-this continued even after
the Persian threat ended. (Later there was great
resentment when tribute was used by the Athenians
to beautify the city of Athens.)
The enforcement of the currency decree took away
the allies' right to mint their own coins.
The cleruchies (colonies) that were established by
the Athenians were resented by the allies because
they felt they had spies in their midst. Many of the
cleruchies also had garrisons of soldiers attached to
them.
/Âe sources
Benefits for Athens
;
;
How would, you describe Athens' rol,e in these euents?
a
What was the signfficance of these reuolts?
Why did these states reuoh?
. Power-Athens had access to, and control of, a
large and powerful alliance of wealthy states.
Sometimes this was used for the benefit of Athens
THE
5aO-44o
BC
253
BC (the exact date is not known). The Persians had
destruction of Thasos.
assembled a large fleet at the mouth of the Eurymedon
River in southern Asia Minor perhaps to launch an
attack on the Greek cities of the Asia Minor coastline
and the offshore islands. Kimon, with an allied fleet of
300 triremes, sailed to Eurymedon and won an
impressive victory against the Persians on land and
sea. The majority of the allies would have regarded
this success at Eurymedon as fulfilling the primary
purpose of the Delian League. As a result, more of the
received one-sixtieth of
total tribute as repayment for organising the
League. They received half of the booty collected
from the campaigns against the Persians. Sale of
slaves also gave them added revenue.
o Trøde-rhe Piraeus
became the main port of the
Aegean. The coinage decree forced the allies to
trade with Athens. Excess tribute aÍter M9 paid for
new docks, storehouses, harbour facilities and
buildings like the Corn Exchange. Cleruchies
o
WORLD:
rather than the League, as in the example of the
o Weahh-in 478 Athens
o
GREEK
established in conquered territory formed part of an
attempt to create a unified system of free trade.
Employmsn¡-n¿vaLl initiatives stimulated employment for rowers, shipbuilders, dock workers and
builders.
Cleruchies-when a state revolted from the League,
Athens usually established a cleruchy of Athenian
citizens to maintain a presence in the area. This
benefited Athens by ridding the city of its excess
population.
Zot lr'rturrr'on
Were there any disadaantages
(5)
Kimon followed this up by defeating some
Phoenician ships off the.coast of Cyprus. These victories were so decisive that the Persians took a number
of years to regain their strength. In areas from which
the Persians had been expelled, the Athenians established their own settlers.
(6) Kimon had by now established his reputation
as an incomrptible political leader. ln 465/4 BC, dur-
ing an unsuccessful attempt to colonise parts of
Thrace, Kimon was accused of comrption by his political opponents. Because of his great popularity at this
(7) In 459 BC the forces of the Delian
for Athens?
In the first few years of the Delian League the main
objectives were carried out by Kimon, son of
Miltiades, the hero of Marathon. Plutarch spoke of
Kimon as equalling Miltiades and Themistocles in
bravery and intelligence, and as oimmeasurably'
exceeding them in statesmanship.
)
than provide men and ships.
point, he was acquitted.
External policy of the League
(f
allies decided to make a payment of money rather
In 477 BC the exiled Spartan king Pausanias
in Byzantium and had cap-
set himself up as a tyrant
tured the town of Sestos. Kimon led an expeditionary
force to recapture these two cities.
(2) After successfully
completing this mission,
Kimon sailed to Eion on the Strymon River. This was
the most important Persian stronghold in Thrace, and
although the Persians greatly outnumbered the
Athenians, the Greeks were successful.
(3) The island of Scyros was inhabited by pirates.
These were expelled by Kimon's forces in 47413 BC.
Kimon established a cleruchy in this strategic posi-
tion. An interesting highlight of this expedition was
the discovery of fhe bones of the legendary Theseus
which were recovered and returned to Athens.
Plutarch comments that under Kimon the Athenians
carried the war into their enemies' country and won
new colonial teritory.
(4) Kimon's greatest military achievement was his
campaign at Eurymedon in Asia Minor in 469 or 466
League sup-
ported the Egyptians in their revolt against Persian
control. At first they met with some success, but by
454 the Persians regained control of Egypt and
destroyed the Greek forces.
(B) As a result of this disaster, the Phoenician fleet
was once more active in the Aegean, giving Athens the
excuse to move the treasury from Delos to Athens.
(9) There was a resurgence of Persian power in the
450s when the Persians actively tried to regain control
over the League allies in Asia Minor. The imposition
of the Erythrae Decree in 45312, which imposed a
democratic system of government and an Athenian
military garrison on the people of Erythrae, probably
indicates the hardline imperialistic stance taken by
the Athenians.
(lO) Kimon returned from exile in 45110 BC and
took up the command of the League forces. He died in
Cyprus in 449 fighting against the Persians.
(11) Historians believe that, in 449 BC, some form
of peace was made between the Athenians and
Persianso known as the
opeace
of Kallias'.
Changing relations with Sparta
This period, 459-444 BC, is sometimes called the
First Peloponnesian War by historians.
o
Kimon, the leader of the League forces, was a con-
servative politician and followed a pro-Spartan
policy. In 462 BC he convinced the Athenians to
aid the Spartans, who were trying to deal with a
254
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
revolt by their population of Messenian helots.
Kimon and the Athenian forces were humiliated
when the Spartans sent them away. The Spartans
had begun to fear Athenian success against the
control of Megara. Athens had lost its land empire
and had to be content with developing its maritime
empire. The defeat at Koronea persuaded Athens in
446 BC to make a peace treaty with Sparta known
Persians and the growth in Athenian power. Kimon
as the
was ostracised for his part in these events.
o Athens made alliances
with Argos and Thessal¡
Sparta's traditional enemies.
o Megara,
a strategically important member of the
Peloponnesian League, defected and joined the
Athenians.
o In 45918 BC Athens went to war against
her old
enemy, Aegina. Sparta did not suppot her allies at
this point, and in 457 A,egina surrendered, losing
its navy and becoming a tribute-paying subject of
Athens.
o
During the 450s, Athens gained a considerable
land empire in central Greece, consisting of
Boeotia, Phocis and Locris. This brought Athens
into opposition with the Spartans and the
o
Peloponnesian League. The Athenians, however,
had difficulty in maintaining their control over such
a wide area and in fighting on so many fronts. By
447, at the battle of Koronea, Athens had lost its
land empire and had to be content with developing
its maritime empire.
In 447 BC Athens went to war with Sparta at
Koronea in Boeotia. The Athenians were defeated
and their leader, Tolmides, was killed. As a result of
this, the cities of Euboea (Athenian subjects)
Thirty Years Peace.
The primary source for these complicated events is
Thucydides, who detailed Athens' rise to power in The
Peloporunesian War, Book L Thucydides refers to this
period of history as the opentecontøetiø' which means
the 'first fifty years', the period leading up to the
Peloponnesian War.
In Boeotía, the Athenians put ínto thcfield 1000 of their
own infantry and, some alli,ed dctachmnnts, in ffinsiue
ctction against th,ese tdrgets; Tolmidcs, Tolmaios' son,
was in cotnmand,. After capturing and, erulaaing
Chaeroneia, they began to withdraw, leauing a garrison
behind. On the mørch they were atkrclæd. at Koroneia by
the Boeotian exiles ... The Athenians utere d,efeated in
pitched, battle: some were killed; the rest were talæn
aliue. The whole of Boeotia wos then na.anted by
Athcru, undcr an agreettÊnt whereby th.ey got their øwn
men au)ay. Those of the Boeotiaru who had been in
exile, ww returned, home, and all th,e rest of Boeotia
re g aínc
d its
in dep en
derce.
It was rnt long after thß that Euboeø reuoltedfrom
Athetæ. Peri.cles had already crossed, ouer to Euboea
an Ath¿nian ørm,y wh,en h,e receiued, the neus that
uith
revolted, Sparta attacked Attica, and Athens lost
Popular eouræ
Council of 5O0
(Dikasteria)
(Boule)
50 members
Areopague
(Council of ex-archons)
9 archone
selected frorn the first
two economic classes
from each tribe
l0 generals
(strategoi)
I from
each tril¡e
Assembly
(Ekklesia)
Composed of all male
citizens over the age of lB
Anny
FTGURE 8.
l2
The structure of Athenian gouernment at the beginníng of the Sth century
THE
Megara had reuolted, that the Peloponnesiaru were
poised to inuod,e Atti.ca and that th,e Athenian
occupatian troops had been annihiløæd by thc
Megarians ... It was afier thß thøt th¿ Peloponræsians
mtnted. inn Atü,c territory, strihing at Eleusis and Thria
anÅ, d.estroying thn lønd ... Howeuer, they mndc rn
furthnr ad,uaræe and withÅrew homeuørds. Orx:e mnre
th.e Athenians crossed ouer to Euboea, with Perirles in
commnnì,. Thny gairæd control of the whnle tenitory,
and imposed, a settl,emcnt on all except Hestiaca; frorn
the lntter thcy droue all thc populatiory and, settl¿d thc
lønd. there th.emselues. Not long afier returningfrom
Euboea, thcy rutd.e a peoce treaty wi;th thc Spartøræ
and. theír allicsfor thirty years: Ath,ens surrend¿red
Nisaea, Pego,e, Troezen, and, Achaea, thefour
Peloponnesiøn positi,oru still in th.eir hønds.
THucyDrDEs ,'The Peloponræsia,n Wa4 cited in
A. FRtNclr,
Th¿ Athenian
Half Century, p. 66
9"rþr/Ânr ìnttes/z'Va/ion
Read, Thucyd,ides' account of these years
in
Boolt. I,
103-17, or consult textbooks such as N. G. L.
Hammond, The History of Greece to 322 BC;
V. Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates,' or J. V Fine,
The Ancient Greeks.
Zc/tt,t
cREEK
WORLD:
5OO-44O
BC
255
Modem scholar Christian Meier claims that by this
time the Delian League had become an Athenian
empire.
Thc Delian lcagtte had long possessed the trappings of
an empire, but at this point it clearly became an empire,
or, to use thc Greeh tenÌt, an arche, In the offi,cial
d,ocum,ents we euenfi.nd, a refereræe to the'Athcnians
and, th,ose ouer whotn thcy rule', The pea,ce treaty with
Sparta refl,ects thi"s, too-it spealts twt of a military
alliance against Persía but of two Greelt pou)er centers
facing
ea,ch oth¿r.
Relatinw within the Delian lzagun cøn
fromthn
speeches Thrcyd,idcs irælud,ed
be ded¡ned,
inhis hßtory
and, al,sofrom a number of inscriptiaræ, irælu.d,ing
tribuæ lists and aarious treati,es. In the speech.es, what is
rutst striking is the tyranni.cal power Athcns exercised,
u;er its allies, som,ething Periclcs anÅ other orators
pointed at with pri.d,e. Thny assert thøt th.efoundati,oru
of this power were laid,whcn Ath,ens, a.t thc reEtcst of its
allíns, assumed lcadership in the war agairæt Persia.
Th,e Athcnians hoÅ. kept the alliønce aliuefor three
re(ißons, th,e samc three
that mntiuate
m,ost
puterful
the Spartans, hod, only owi chnit:e, eithcr to rule by
might or to pu,t thnir own positinn in jeopardy.
c.
. ESSA
METER, .Arhcns, p. 358
lnølyse how Athens gained, and lost its larud empíre.
The League becomes the Athenian
etnpire
By 454 BC Athens had discontinued meetings of the
Delian League on the island of Delos. The treasury
had been removed for safekeeping to Athens after the
defeat of the Delian fleet in Egypt. By 450, owing to
the actions of Kimon and the forces of the Delian
League, the threat of Persian aggression had considerably diminished. Once an agreement had been made
between the Athenians and Persians, the initial justification for the League was removed. A peace treaty
POLITIqAL CHANGES IN
ATHENS
Overview of Kleisthenes' reforms
In the late 6th century the Athenian statesman
Kleisthenes made major changes to the Athenian system of govemment. The area of Athens and Attica had
previously been divided into four tribes. Government
with Persia was a sensible move. However, the
and public life were controlled by the aristocratic
families. Kleisthenes' reforms attempted to break this
stranglehold. The whole area of Attica was divided
into 139 demes (villages or local areas). Kleisthenes
Athenians sought to maintain their power and to preserve the League, arguing that the Persians would
strike again if the Greeks appeared weak.
Athens consolidated its dominance of the League.
By 440 BC most of the allies were subjects of Athens,
and the tribute paid into the Athenian treasury was
being used not only to maintain the fleet, but to
rebuild and beautify the city of Athens.
then organised ten new tribes, each consisting of several demes (about 14). The Council was enlarged from
400 to 500 members. The method of selection was by
lot-fifty members were chosen from each of the new
tribes. The Athenian assembl¡ or Ekklesia, acquired
wider powers to review and try cases. These measures
gave more power and greater opportunities to the citizens, and broke the inlluence ofthe aristocrats.
256
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
Major changes in Athenian democracy
from 5OO-45O BC
Athens was greatly affected by the Persian Wars and
the aftermath of those wars. Significant changes were
made to the internal government of Athens. The
changes that took place between 500 and 450 BC
were part of the democratisation process, bui they
must also be seen as responses to the Persian Wars
and as consequences of the growing imperialism of
Athens.
It is important to understand the inter-
relationship of the democratic changes with the events
of the 5th century.
The political changes that occured in this period
can rightly be seen as a tuming point in history. In the
first half of the Sth century Athens developed from a
land power to become the leading maritime state in
Greece. Simultaneously, Athens underwent major
political changes that revolutionised and transformed
the state from a moderate to a radical democracy.
Democracy was essentially a product of the 6th
century but it continued to develop in the Sth century.
By 508 BC, Athens had adopted the democratic
changes of Kleisthenes, but it would remain largely a
plutocracy for the next fifty years-the great statesmen would continue to be drawn from the ranks of the
wealthy.
Democracy then and no\,r
o Isonomia--equality under the law
o Demoltrøtiø-sovereign power of the people
century. Prior to this, the Athenians refer:red to their
government as oisonomia', meaning 'equality before
the law'. As Pericles observed, 'when it is a question
of settling private disputes, everyone is equal before
the law' (Thucydides, Peloponnesian Wør,II, 37). To
the Athenians, the word od,ernos', meaning 'the people',
could be used in a number of ways. Technically it
referred to all the Athenian citizens meeting in the
Bkklesia, and so conveyed the idea of 'the majority'.
The word was also used in an emotive and negative
sense to mean
othe
common people', the lower classes
or the poorer citizens.
Many Athenians in the sixth and fifth centuries
believed that govemment was best exercised by those
men who were well born-the wealthy land owners.
There were numerous terms for these men: 'the best
men' (aristoi), 'the well born' (eugeneis) and'the men
of note' (gnorimoi). Athens' obest men' seemed to fear
that the changes to the democracy would enable domination by the common people. The political contests of
this period were often polarised between the supporters of rhe d,emos and the supporters of 'the men of
note'. The conservative democrats believed in choos-
ing leaders from among their friends; the radical
democrats believed that the people should rule.
Problems with sources
It is important to note that sources on the transformation of Athenian democracy are limited. There is no
one source that deals with all of the changes in a
chronological sequence; therefore, information has to
has a positive connotation. The Greek word 'dem,okratia', meaning the osovereign power of the people', was
be gleaned from scraps of evidence in a variety of
places. Because ofthe lack ofevidence it is difficult'to
supply accurate dates for many of the changes that
occurred and to name the people responsible for intro-
not used to describe democracy until late in the Sth
ducing these changes.
In modern society, the word odemocracy' generally
ffi*
Some of the Archon's functions transferred to the strategos
Battle of Marathon shows the ambiguous relationship of the polemarch and the
strategos
Archons chosen by lot
Ephialtes reforms the Areopagus; powers given to Ekklesia, Boule, jury courts
ffi
FTGURE
8.f 3
Archonship opened to the third property class, the Zeugitae
Pericles introduces payment for jurors (payment for magistrates adopted later)
Citizenship law of Pericles
Major changes to Athenian democracy
THE
WORLD:
5OO-44O
BC
257
The structure of goverrunent
Radical democracy
In studying this period it is vital to understand
the
nature of political power in Athens. 'Men became conspicuous in Athenian political life through the reputa-
tion of their families and the social circles to which
they belonged, from their association with and influence on members of the Council of Five Hundred, and
from their ability to win favour in the assembly.ÌO
Athens became more democratic with the introduction
of a system of changes that allowed greater participation by ordinary citizens. This is frequently referred to
Summary of reforms introduced in this period
o development of popular courts
o introduction ofpay forjurors and officials
o abolition and reduction of property qualifications
for magistrates
o selection by lot for most officials
o limitation of magistrates
o the people, through the Ekklesia,
the Boule and the
law courts, gained sovereignty.
The archonship and selection by lot
as'radical democracy'.
It was considered radical because of:
selection by lot
Confusion had arisen about the powers of the archons.
o
o rotation ofoffices
o collegiality
o
GREEK
In 501 BC the strategos had taken
some of the
archon's functions. The battle of Marathon demon-
payment for service.
In the radical democracy of Athens it is unlikely
that anyone really poor became a political leader
because of the amount of time that leadership
required. A significant change had occurred during
the Persian Wars. It became clear that political power
lay with the class best able to defend the state. The
navy was successful in the Persian Wars, and the
strated the ambiguity surrounding the relationship
between the archon and the strategos. Kallimachos,
the polemarch (chief archon), was technically in
charge but the strategos Miltiades had been elected by
popular vote and possessed military experience. This
situation showed that the chief archon was superfluous. Afterwards the archonship was downgraded,
probably as a response to the situation at Marathon.
Thetes-from among whom the rowers
were
enlisted-demanded greater political power, which
led to a radical democracy.
Throughout the 5th century Athens developed a
large maritime empire based on trade. However, it is
important to note that the basis of Athenian society
pn thc year 487/6 BCl, in th,e archnrxhip of Telesinw,
they selected.,for thef.rst timc sin'ce the tyranny, the
nítæ archons by Int through th,e tribes, from o'nlong
500 cand,id.øtes prniously elected by thc d,em'esmen.
remained agrarian. Landholding continued to be a
significant determinant of success. The main agrarian
Preuiously, the archons had' all been elected, by uote.
classes were as follows:
o Pentakosiomedimnoi-owned
ARtsrorLE, Constitution of Athens, trans. by
K. voN FRtrz & E. Kaee, p.92
land that produced
500 medimnoi a year (modem equivalent about 30
hectares)
o Hippeis---owned
land that produced 300 medimnoi
(also furnished a horse for cavalry service)
o Zeugirae-owned land that produced
o Thetes-owned property of less value than
the
above.l1
David Stockton calculates that the average
Athenian family-a man, wife and three childrenwould need about twenty-five medimnoi a year to
survive. (The medimnos was an Attic unit of measu¡s-¿þs¡¡
Up to this time the archons had been directly
200-300
medimnoi a year and owned plough and mules
105 bushels; in liquid measure about 50
litres.)
loFine, op. cit., p. 385.
'rFigures from D. Stockton, The Classical Athenian
Democracy, Oxford University Press, Oxford,1990, p. 7
elected. From 48716 BC the archons were chosen by
lot from the top two Solonian classes-the Pentakosiomedimnoi and Hippeis. This change to the archonship
had a number of consequences:
o Not only was the status of the archons weakened
but the polemarch lost his command of the army
and his control of the Ekklesia, becoming a mere
figurehead.
o
The office of strategos became the important military and political position, for the generals gained
the command of the fleet and the army. After the
formation of the Delian League the strategoi were
also the commanders of the military and naval
forces ofthe League.
25A
HISTORICAL
TABLE 8.f
PERIODS
Atheniøn political institutions afier Keisthenes' reforms
Institution Number and method
Functions and duties
Plaee of meeting
E x e cutia e cornmitte e ; pr ep ar e d
agend,a for the Ekltlesia;
formulated, motions on which
The old Bouleterion.
When the mernbers were
on d,uty they stayed, in
tlrc EkkLesia aote.d.
the Tholos.
Elected magistrates; aoted, on
importønt rnatters of state.
ofthe Areopagus.
Judged legøl rnøtters and
In or near the Agora.
of selection
Boule
(Council
of 500)
50 cítizerufrom each tribe.
Ekklesia
All male citizens
(Assembly)
age of eighteen.
Dilçasteria
or Heliaea
All male citizens
ouer the
oaer the
ageofeighteen.After
Ephiahes' reforms all jury
courts u)ere called, \teliaea'.
In the Sth century these
courts'Dere staffid by jurors
The Pnyx, west of the
híll
archons'decisions;afterEphialtes'
reforms the courts d,eterrnined,
the suitability ofpotential
ffice holders ønd, held,
magistrates to account.
(dikastai), and the courts canle
to be called'dikasteña'. 6000
citizens (600from each tribe)
oaer the age of thirty were chosen
as a pool ofjurors. Jury sizes
aaried.from 201 to 501.
Strategoi
l0 generals (onefrom eaclt,
tribe) elected, by the Ekhlesia.
Seraed, as
military
responsible
command,ers;
Strategion near the Agora.
for recruitment to
the arm.y.
Archons
Elected, by citizens but
eligibilíty entailed
Areopagus
Wid,e powers, becøuse they were
members of the Council of the
rnembership of the top two
economic classe.s.
Areopagus.
No set number. Mad,e up
of ex-archons elected,
Held executiue power in terms of the
law and cowtitution; administered
the state. After Ephialtes'reforms the
Areopagus had the care ofthe sacred,
for life.
Office øt the Royal Stoa.
The
híll of the Areopagus.
oliae trees and, ad,judicøted. in arson
and homicid,e cases.
o By decreasing
the importance of the archons, this
Iaw also devalued the role of the aristocratic council of the Areopagus. As this council was made up
of ex-archons, 'it would not take long for the change
to selection by lot to alter the makeup of the
Areopagus, and with it the status and respect it had
previously enjoyed'.l2
By 457 BC the archonship had been opened to the
third property class, the Zeugitae, and some time after
that to the Thetes. This meant an increased oppoftu-
nity for Athenians to participate and fewer distinr2J.
Thorley, Athenian Democracy, Routledge, London,
1996, p. 53.
guished men being chosen. This change to the archon-
ship may have been the work of Themistocles.
Certainly, Themistocles benefited the most from these
changes to the archonship and strategoi and the
ostracisms that followed.
The aristocratic idea that political office required
special expertise was changing to the radical ideal
that there should be equal involvement of all, except
in military affairs. Policy was being made by large
popular bodies and the magistrates were carrying out
the will of the people. Direct election, however, was
still used for those officials who did require expertise,
such as the generals, architects and supervisors of
public works.
THE
GREEK
WORLD:
5OO-44O
BC
259
The strategoi
'by the device of ostracism he and his collaborators
Early in the 5th century the criteria for choosing the
strategoi changed. A fragment from the Sth-century
comedy writer Eupolis tells us that once the strategoi
had come from the great houses and were chosen
because of their wealth and birth, but by the iime that
he was writing it was different. Henceforth, ambitious
Athenians and members of the great families could
choice between their leaders, and was used by
Athenian leaders to rid themselves of their political
opponents. The use of ostracism reveals the importance of political leaders and that politics in Athens
seek power and influence through the office of strategos. The election of the generals took place in the sevenlh prytøny. The introduction of the election of one
strategos per tribe (in 46918 or 460159) may have been
a reform of Ephialtes.
In 460 BC two of the generals, Aristides and
Ephialtes, were not from the Athenian élite. Both were
prosperous landowners but presented themselves as
friends of the people. They were not involved in the
aristocratic political clubs or hetaireiai' They believed
in strong leadership and popular participation in
govemment.
Rotation of offfce
Another important element in widening the democracy
was the introduction of rotation of office, so that politicians could not hold office continuously and could not
eliminated their chief opponents one by one'.14
Ostracism was a means of offering the people a
was driven by personalities.
Keisthcrcs enntted' new flautsl with the aitn of winning
thc peopLe\føuour. Amang thcse was th,e lant of
ostracism. . ,
Whcn, inthc twelfih year afier thcse innouatiorx, in
airtory
tuo ntare years had, passed ofær
th.e arch,onship of Ph,onnipptu, they had, won thc
of Marathnry and, wh¿n
that bøttle, and. the comtrnn peoplc gøinnd' greater selfconfàcnre, thcy emplayed.for thnfirst timc the law
coræerning ostrocisrn. Thß laut ha'd' been etmcted,
because of thcir suspirinn of thnse inpmter . . .
In thn sinth prytany . . . thcy al'so dcciÅn by uoæ
wh¿th.er thcre ß ø be a1)ote otu ostra'cism or twt . . .
ARlsrorLE, Constítutinnof Athcns, trans. by
K. voN FRlrz & E. KAPP, PP.91, 117
become dependent on state pay. According to
Aristotle, no one could hold the same office twice
except for the generals and the members of the Boule:
'The military offices can be held repeatedl¡ but none
of the others can, with the exception of Council members who can belong to the Council twice [in their lifetimel' (Constitutioru of Atherw, XXII, 3). The principles
of selection by lot and rotation of office ensured that a
representative cross-section ofthe citizens took part in
the govemment. This practice of rotation of office can
be seen in operation at ihe battle of Marathon: 'The
generals held the presiding position in succession,
each for a day; and those of them who had voted with
Miltiades, offered, when their turn for duty came, to
surrender it to him' (Herodotus, Histories, VI, lIt)'
Use of ostracism
A major change that occurred in 4BBl7 BC was the use
of ostracism. The sources conflict about who was
responsible for formulating ostracism law. Aristotle
claims that it was Kleisthenes who made the law but
that it was not used for twenty years' The lexicogra-
This senterce of ostra.cßmwo,s nnt in i*elf a punßhmcnt
for wrongd,oing. h wøs d¿scribed'for thc sakc of
appearønres os a fitÊøsure to curtail and' hwnblc ø
man's ptruter and prestige in cases whnre thnse h,etd,
groûn oppressiue; bw in reality it was ø hurunæ deuù:e
.for appeosing thc peoplc's jealottsy, uthich could' thtts
uen¡ its dcsire to do harm, not by inJli,cting some
irreparable injury, ba by a senleru:e of ten years'
banßhm,ent..,
Eoth aoter tool¡ an ostrakor¡ or picce of eartheruttare,
wrote on it th,e mme of thn citizen h¿ wished' to be
banish¿d, and, carried, it to a part of th'e mnrkct-plo'ce
which was fented off with a circular paling. Then thc
archonsf,rst courúed the totøl nurnber ofaotes cast,for if
thcre were l,ess than 6000, the ostrarßm was ttoid.. After
thß th.ey sortnd the aotes and the mnn wh,o ho'd, the mnst
recordcd, against hß nømc wos proclaim'ed to be exiled
for ten years, uith the right hnweuer, to receiae thc
inromcfromhís estate.
pher Harpokration refers to the ostracism law as having been enacted in 4BBl7.13 Hignett suggests that
Themistocles, Ieader of the anti-Persian party, may
have been the originator of the ostracism law because
r3Fine, op. cit., p. 240.
PLUTARcH, Thc
Rise and'
FaIl of Athcrc, trans. by
t. sqorr-K¡LvERT,
raC.
pP. 116-17
Hignett, A History of the Athenian Constitution,
Oxford University Press, London,1970, p. 1BB.
260
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
o By his persuasive tongue and clever strategies
he
held control over the Ekklesia throughout the
o
fThemistocles] wos the only man who had, thc courage to
come before thc peopl,e and propose that the ret)enue
from thc silaer miræs at lnurium, whi.ch the Atheniørc
had, been in thc habit of d,iaid,ing unng themselues,
shnuld, be set osidc and thc money wed, to build triremcs
for the war against Aegim. This conflirt, øt that
mam,ent the mnst important in all Greece, was at its
h.eiglu anÅ. thc island,ers, thanlæ to thc size of their fl.eet,
uere mo,sters of th,e sea. This made it all the easier for
Thetnßtoclcs to carry his point. There uas nn tæed to
4
Ostrakafrom the Agora in Athens
showíng the nq,mes offour prominent Athenian
FTGURE 8. t
politicians
Q/n dntt / an
lt'ng
/6e ,out"e"
an
I
us
tng
:
Usirug the sources, explain th,e purpose of ostracism.
s
How was it organised,?
t
What was the penalty?
s Refer to Figure
8.14.
Persian invasion of 4BG-79 BC.
Themistocles advocated a strong anti-Persian policy; after the Persian Wars he pursued anti-Spartan
policies.
tenifu thn Atheniaru with the threat of Darius and the
. The resuh uas that the Atheniaru built 100
trirem.es with the mnnÊy, and, th.ese ships artuallyfought
Persiøræ . .
at Salarnis øgaiut Xerxes .. .
He twnnd [thn Athcnians], to we Plato's phrase,frorn
stead,fast hnplites into sea tossed, mariners, and, he
earncd,for himself thc charge that hc had dnpríaed thc
Athenians of th.e spear and, thc shinld and. degrødcd
thcm to thc rowing beru:h and th.e oar . . .
Whose nanles appeØr on the
ostraka?
9"tfut/6e, tnues/tga/ìon
Three of the men nømed. in Figure B.14 were
ostracised, Research the circumstønces of eøch
Afur this h,e proceed.ed, ø d.euelnp th,e Piraetu as a
port,for hc had, alread.y tahen nnte of thc rntural
ad.aantøges of its harbours and, it was hß ambition to
ostracism.
unite th,e whole city to thc sea . . . h.e attached thc city to
thc Pira¿tr and mad,e th.e land. dcpendnnt on the seø.
Øc/hz/V
The ffict of this wos to increue thc influerce of the
peoplc at the expense of thc rnbility and, to fill them with
conf.deræe, sinre the control of policy nmn passed, into
the ha.nd^s of sail,ors and, boatswains and, piloæ . . .
[Inter thc Thirty Tyrønts] beli.eued that Ath.ens'ruraal
ernpire ha.d. prcned n be thc mnther of demoøacy and.
Using Plutørch's instructions as a guid,e, condlrct your
own ostrecism in cløss.
Themistocles
Themistocles can be regarded as the political successor of Kleisthenes. Following are the significant
changes that took place in the time of Themistocles:
o In 49312 BC he fotified the harbour of the Piraeus
and in the 470s completed the walls protecting the
Piraeus.
that an oligarchy was mnre easily accepted, by mcnwho
tilled, th¿ soil.
PLUTa,RcH, The
Rise and,
Fall of Athens, trans. by
t. scorr-KtLyERT,
pp. BGSI,96
o In 483
o
o
BC he convinced the Bkklesia to use the
profits from the silver mines at Laurium to develop
and build a fleet of 100 triremes.
Themistocles' development of a naval policy; transformed Athens from a land power into the leading
maritime state in Greece.
During the 4B0s Themistocles used ostracism as a
weapon against his political opponents. (It may also
have been an attempt to rid the state of suspected
Persian sympathisers.)
Q/n
lntt
/an
ltng
an
I
us
tng
/6e sources
:
How did Themistocles corwince the Athenians to
build, a nøay? What political changes did this
stimulate?
)
Whql other changes d,id, Themistocles malæ? How
important were they?
THE
WORLD:
GREEK
At
BC
5OO-44O
26t
last euen his fellow citieeru reo,ched thc poin at whirh
jealowy madc thetn listen to øny slan'r)'er at his
th.eir
expense, and, so Themistocl,es wasforced' to remínÃ' th,e
of his arhíeuemen¡s until thny could, beør thß
rw longer. He once said to those who were complaining
of hitn: 'Why are you tired' of receiuing bercfi'ts so often
frorn. thc samn men?' Besidcs this h'e gøae ffirce to the
people wh.en he built thn Temple of Aræmis, for rwt only
did,h.e style the god'dnss Artemß Aristoboule, or Artemß
wßest in couttsel---<tith thc hint that it wos he who ha.d
giaen th,e be;t counsel to thc Athcnians ønd the Greelæbut he chpse a siæfor it near hß own h'otne at Melite.
Assembly
FrauRE
8.15
PLUTARcH, The Rise and' FalI of Athens, trans. by
l. Scorr-Krrvent, p.98
Themistocles' walls
From the archaeological evidence found
Themistocles' do*rrfall
in
the
it
seems that Themistocles had been subjected
throughout the 4B0s to an organised campaign to have
Agora
After the Persian Wars, Themistocles' power declined.
While Kimon and Aristides weïe working on the
Delian League, Themistocles was in Athens in 478 BC
supervising the building of the Long Walls. The
Spartans strenuously objected to the rebuilding of the
walls but Themistocles pushed it through despite their
antagonism. A. Podlecki comments that it is 'legitimate to deduce that Themistocles' exposure to the
Spartan mentality in 480, when he had to deal with
them as often unwilling allies, had convinced him that
him ostracised. Archaeologists uncovered many
they, and not the Persians, presented the real obstacle
/6e sour"es
Athens' greatness'.15
League forces under the leadership of Kimon
and Aristides enjoyed numerous successes in the
470s. This would have seriously undermined the political position of Themistocles. Thucydides informs us
that the height of Themistocles' walls was about half
to.
'The
what he had planned (Peloponnesiøn War,I, 93).
Perhaps this was how the Ekklesia responded when it
heard of the great success of Kimon at Eion-if the
Athenians were so successful against their enemies
they probably considered it unnecessary to have such
high walls.
Themistocles tried to remind the Athenians of his
important contribution during the Persian Wars. In
476P,C, he was choregw for a tragedy by Phrynichus,
The Phoenician Women, which dealt with the Persian
defeat and no doubt reminded the Athenians of his
role in those events.
in the same hand, with Themistocles'
name, suggesting that it was not an individual vote but
ostrako, incised,
an attempt to rig the ostracism. In 472
Themistocles was ostracised and, initially, went to live
in Argos. He aroused anti-Spartan feeling in the
Peloponnese. The Spartans complained to Athens and
claimed that he had collaborated with Persia.
Q/n dnrt /on
J. Podlecki,The Life of Themistocleso McGill-Queen's
University Press, Montre at, 1975, p. 34.
lrny an I
us
tng
:
:
:
;
ReadThucydides
:
)
What d,eal did' Themistocles strilte with' Art(rxerxes?
I, 134-8, pp. 115-17'
How d,id, Thetnistocles respond to the clmrges? Why?
How was Corcyra in'aolued in these eaents?
What part d.id, Ad,metus of Molossi
Tlt ernistocles' flight?
play in
How d,id, Themistocles support himself during this
time?
:
:
Hon did Themistocles die?
Sum up your uiews of Themistocles' character.
Øc/ioily; le6o/e
Tlt
etnistocles: uisionary genius or opportunistic
traitor?
Øc/ioilV;
r5A.
BC
Wha,t
essag/
political influence did Themistocles
period,?
h,øue iru this
262
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
Aristides
thnught th,emselues cøpablc of ønything and, were
ffindcd at anybod,y whose tultno and, reputatinn rose
aboue the comm.on Leael. So thcyfuclæd, into th,e city
frorn all ouer Atti,cø ønd, proceed,ed, to ostracke Arßtidcs,
d,isguising thcir jeølawy of hisfame undcr thc pretext
th,a.t thcy were afraid, of tyranny.
Aristides (not the general of 460) came from an aristocratic background and tended to be politically conservative. Throughout the 480s, along with Themistocles,
he advocated an anti-Persian foreign policy. If the law
on ostracism was enacted at this time, as many scholars believe, then Aristides was likely to have been one
of its promoters, as the first victims of the ostracism
law were Persian sympathisers. However, Aristides
opposed Themistocles over the naval bill, as it would
weaken the dominance of the hoplite army and
increase the power of the Thetes in the navy (at the
expense of the aristocrats' power).
PLUTARcH, Th¿
Q/n
ofthc people . ..
Th.emistocles was corwtantly proposing reckless
reforms ønd, at the same tim.e checking and, obstrutting
hiln at euery step in thc btuiness of goaemment, Aristi.d¿s
wasforced, to oppose Th¿mistoclcs' mcasures in thc samc
fashion, partly in self-dcfenre ønd. partly to limit his
opponent's power, whirh was constøntly grming with
the support of thc people. He thought it better that thn
people shnuld,forgo an occasinnal ød,uantage than that
Themisnclcs should get hß rtay on euery occasinn ønd,
he opposed, and,
dcfeated Thnmisøcles øt a rnnment wh,en th¿ løtter was
trying to ca,rry a really ræcessørrt fitßosure, and, thcn
Aristidns could, nnt refrainfrom saying, as he lcfi thc
Assembly, that there would be ru safety.for Athcru unless
the peopl.e thrøt both Themßtocles and himself inø thc
børøthrum.
PLUTARcH, Thn Rise and, Fall of Athcn^r, trans. by
t. ssorr-KtLvERT, pp. lll-12
opposition,
in
I
d.id.
us
p. 116
tng
Aristides oppose
Whøt d,o you think is meant by Aristides' conrn'Lent
that both men should, be thrown into the execution
pit?
Thcmistocl,es, th.e son of Neocles, who was thc chørnpi,on
In order to hinder Aristides'
an
Accord.ing to Plutarch., why
Themistocles?
:
Themistocles spread rumours about him and
BC succeeded in having him ostracised.
lnrt lan ltng
/6e sources
Aristidcs supported an aristocratbform of goaernmcnt
and. so constøntlyfound, himself in oppositinn to
Bafinally
Fall of Athnrc,trans. by
l. Sqorr-Ktlvenr,
;
carry all before him.
Rise and,
482
Themi"sncles put about thc story that by thefan of hß
arting as arbitrator and. jud.ging all cases referred, to
him in priaate, Aristidcs had, abolished, the public courts,
and. that without anybody noticing it, hc hød rutdc
himself oirtually the ruler of Athens, ønd, only lacked an
armcd bodygunrd, . . . th.e people had. becomc so exultant
becanue of th,eir airtory ouer the Persians that thny
a
What was the runlour thøt Themistocles spread,
øbout Aristides?
s How are the people of Athens presented,
in
these
pøssages?
a
What
d,oes
Plutarch tell us about the worltings of
Athenian politics?
Kirnon
Kimon played a vital role in the development of the
Athenian Empire, and by his attitude contributed
unwittingly to the further democratisation of Athens.
Although from a noble famil¡ Kimon enjoyed grei.'.
popularity with the masses, which he fostered by offeiing generous gifts to the state. He followed a new policy of panhellenic idealism, showing particular favour
to the Spartans.
L
Thc Spartans on thcir sid,e did, mu.ch to strengthen
Kimon's positinn, o,s thßy soon becamc bitterly hnstile to
Th.etnßtocl,es and, were thcrefore concerned that Kimon,
young os hc was, sh,ould exercise greater power and,
influcrrce at Athens. Atfirst thc Athcniatæ were well
pleased at this, siru:e the good,will thc Spartans shnued
th,em was uery mtrch to their odaantage . . . But
afterutards, wh,en thcir puler had grown and, thcy saw
that Kimon was whnleheartedly attochcd to th,e
Spartans, they resented, this, rwt least because of his
tenderrcy to sing the praises of Sparta to the Ath,enians
wh,eneuer he had, occasion to reproarh them or spur
th,em on,
PLUTARcÞI, Thc
Rise and.
Fall of Athnrx, trans. by
l. ScoTT-K¡lvenr,
p. 158
THE
Kimon of course played a
paÍ in bringing charges
against Themistocles for medising'
He
joincd with Arßtid,es in opposing Themistocles, when
the latter began to extend the a'uthority of the people
beyond its duÊ lirnits; and, later on he also resisted
Ephialtes when, to please the people, he tried' to d,issolue
the Courrcil of the Areopagw.t6
\¡1/ORLD:
GREEK
5Oo-44O
BC
263
attenxpts to conÍentro'te offæe anl'pttwer intheir own
hands, but oilyþr as long os he was in Athens. Th.e
nnxt timc tha,t h.e sailed anay onforeign seraire the
people broke loose from all control.
PLUTARcH, Thc
Rße ønd'
FalI of Athens, trans' by
p. 157
l. Ssorr-Kllvenr,
There appeared to be a contradiction between his
policies abroad and at home. As leader of the Delian
League forces he met with considerable success.
These successes, however, also increased the importance of the fleet and the Thetes. At Athens he
In 462 BC the Spartans asked for assistance with
the helot revolt at Mt lthome' Kimon, very proSpartan in his policies, enjoyed good relations with
resisted any moves to change the constitution. Instead
Spartan request.
the Spartans and favoured sending an expedition to
help them. Ephialtes urged the Ekklesia to refuse the
he attempted to divert the Thetes from political
changes by distributing gifts and giving poorer citizens the opportunity to obtain land in the colonies.
Kimonwas alread,y a ri't:h mnn, and'
so h¿ saw to
þarn'd
support' but
thc
Spartøns,
th.eir boldnnss and, enterprise frightennd
wha singl,ed them outfrom amnng all the allies as
dangerotn reoohttíonari,es and' sent thcm atttøy. They
Thc Athenians
it that
onÆe
Ítore caÍæ to
the mnney which he was cred,itcd' with hauing won
horcurablyfrom th'e en'em'y in his campaigns u)oß spent
euen Ítore honnurably on hisfellow citizens- He had all
thcfences on hísf'elds talæn dnwn, so that twt only poor
returncd hom.e in afury an'd, proceed¿d n take publir
rnenge upon thelriends of Sparta in gencral and,
Kimon in parti.cular. They seized, upon som'e trifling
pretetû to ostradse him an'd, con'd,emtrcd, hitn to exile for
Athenians but euen strangers could hclp themselues
ten,
season. He also prouidnd a
din¡ær at his hotne euery d'ay, a simple mcal but enough
for large numbers. Any poor manwho wishnd could'
comn to himfor thß, and' so receiaed, a subsistence whi'ch
cost him nn ffirt and' left hirnfree to deuote all his
are banished' by ostro,cism.
freely to whateuer fruit was ín
a.ttention to pubLic affairs . . .
. . . the story was spread that
flatter thc
mnsses o'nd,
PLuraRcH,
In
all
thß was only dnæ to
cunyfaaour with
th,em'
Th¿ Rße and Fall of Athen's, trans. by
l. scorr'KlLvERT,
PP' 151-2
46514 BC Kimon was unsuccessful
in Thrace
and his political opponents, Ephialtes and Pericles,
decided to prosecute him for taking bribes from
Alexander, King of Macedonia.
I
So Kimnn was a,cquitted on thß occasion. During the
rest ofhis political career he succeedcd in arresting and
euen
reducing
th.e eru:roa.chm'ents
of the people upon th'e
prerogøtioes of the arßtocra'cy, an'd ínfoiling their
years whi.ch is th,e peri'od laid dawnfor all those who
PLUTARcH, The
Rße anÅ,
FaIl of Atherx, trans. by
p. 160
l. sqorr-Kllvenr,
When Kimon went to help the Spartans in the
cause of panhellenic friendship, he took with him
4000 hoplites. The {leet and the Thetes were not
needed on this occasion. Ephialtes seized the opportunity of Kimon's absence to pass his laws limiting the
powers of the Areopagus' Meanwhile, Kimon was
rebuffed by the Spartans and had to retum to Athens.
The more radical democrats in Athens blamed Kimon
for Sparta's intolerable behaviour. Kimon was
ostracised in 461 BC.
(Un
ln.t / on lt'ng
an
d u s tng
/,6e sources
:
:
How did the Spartans regard' Kimon?
Why did the Athenians become an'noyed with
Kímon?
r6Plutarch, The Rise and,
Fall ofAthens, trans. by I. Scott-
Kilvert, Penguin, London, 1969,P. I52.
;
;
Why did, Kimon' oppose political change?
Why did the Athenians ostracise Kimon?
264
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
Zc/iui/y.'ers a/
How important was the contribution of Kimon
period?
in
this
Ephialtes' reforms
The most significant of the democratic changes
occurred
in
4621L BC, when the Ekklesia, the Boule,
and the jury courts were given a greater role. Little is
known about Ephialtes, the man responsible for these
changes. He was probably of humble origins. It is
clear that he became the democratic leader after
Themistocles and successfully prosecuted members of
the Areopagus for corruption. It is unlikely that he
was a very poor man because he became a general in
c.465 and led an expedition to Phaselis. EaÃy in 462
he unsuccessfully attempted to impeach Kimon on
comtption charges. Later that year, he opposed send-
This, then, was the way in whi.ch the people obtaircd
thcir liaelihoods. For seuenteen years following th.e
Persían Wars, thc politiral ordcr remøiræd, essentiølly
the same undcr the superaßinn of the Areopagus,
ahhnugh it was slmtly degenerating. But as the
commnn people grew in strength, Ephialtes, thc son of
Sophonidcs, who had, a reputationfor intomtptibility
and loyølty to the co¡xtitution, became teøder of thc
people and, mad¿ an atta.clt upon thc Areopagw. First he
eliminated, rnany of its members by bringing suits
agairct thcm on the ground of adrninistratiue
in thc archonship of Kornn, hn
Courcil of all thnse prerogatiues which it
¡niscond,uct. T\rcn,
depriued, thn
recently had, orquíred, and, whi.ch had made it the
gtnrd,iøn of thc støte, and gøae somc of th.em to thc
Council of Fiae Hundled, sonte to th.e [Assembly of thc]
people and, somc to th,e lcrut courts.
ARtsrorLE, Constitutian of Ath,erc, trans. by
K. voN FRrTz a e. Xan¿ p.95
ing Athenian help to the Spartans, for like
Themistocles before him he recognised that Sparta
was a rival to Athens.
In 462, Ephialtes made major changes to the
democracy at Athens. Ephialtes' actions were
designed not only to widen the democracy but also to
counter the influence of the conservative leader
Kimon, who at the time was in the Peloponnese.
Kimon was known as a vigorous supporter of the
Areopagus, and earlier in his career had opposed
Themistocles' plans on behalf of the people.
Before 487 BC all important political leaders of
Athens were archons, who, at the close of their term of
office, automatically became life members of the
Areopagus. Only men from the top two economic
classes, and over the age ofthirty, were eligible for the
Areopagus. This conflicted with the democratic ideal
of participation by all.
Scholars are unclear about the exact nature of the
jurisdiction of the Areopagus at the beginning of the
Sth century. Aristotle mentions that the Areopagus
was supreme in that period and that during the
Persian Wars it had taken on extra poweïs because of
its responsibility for the bartle of Salamis.
(Un
lntt /an ltng
/Âe ,out"e"
an
I
us
tng
c Vlhat changes did Ephialtes make?
; How d,íd. Ephiahes begin his attack or¿ the
Areopøgus?
Ephialtes charged men from the Areopagus for
using powers they were not entitled to use. In this
period there was also a great deal of competition
between the members of the Areopagus and the strategoi. What were these powers that the Areopagus was
supposed to be using unlanfully?
..
follaring Ephialæs'
lead they dcpriaed thc .. . .
Areopagus of all but afar of the isstæs whirh had, been
.
under its juri,sdictinn. They took control of the couræ of
justice and transformcd thc city into a thoroughgoing
d.emncracy
with the help of Pericl,es, whn had. ru¡w risen
to power and. committed himself to thc
cawe of the
people.
PLUTARcH, Thc
Rße and.
Fall of Athens, trans. by
l. ScoTT-Ktlvenr,
p. 157
o dohimasia-the examination of public
officials to
determine their fitness or suitability for office
o eisangelia-Ihe
power to supervise the conduct of
officials during their year ofoffice
o euthynøi-the investigation at the end of their
office to establish whether they had acted according to law.
By using these powers, the Areopagus may have
been able to ovemrle the actions of magistrates and
the Ekklesia. Ephialtes took away the added judicial
powers of the Areopagus through which it guarded the
THE
laws. The Areopagus was left with religious powers
and the right to adjudicate in arson and homicide
cases. Ephialtes' reforms blotted out the moderate
voice of men like Kimon.
Aeschylus' play The Eumer¿id,es offers important
evidence for the political climate of these changes. It
deals with the trial of Orestes for the murder of his
mother. The Eumenides are the Furies or, as the
Greeks called them, 'the kindly ones', who pursue
Orestes to exact punishment for his crime. Orestes is
tried before the Athenian law court of the Areopagus,
where he is acquitted.
It is not unlikely that
Aeschylus' treatment of the Orestes myth was heavily
influenced by contemporary events.
Arntwt: Citizeru
of Athens! As you now try
thisfi'rst
cose
Of btoodsh,ed, h¿ar the constitut'iøn of your court.
From this d'ay forutard' thß jud'icial coun'cíl shall
For Aegetn' race hear euery tríal of homicid,e.
Here shall be their perpetua'l seat, on Ares' Híll . . .
Here, ilay and night,
Shalt Awe and' Fear, Awe's brother, check my cítizens
From. all mßdníng, while they leeep my lauts wrchanged,.
If you beþul a shining spring with an impure
AnÅ, mud'dy d'ribble, you will comc in tnin to d'rink'
taint pure laws with new expediercy . . you a court inui'olable,
establish
I here
quick
to anger, ltcepingfaithful watch
and,
Holy,
sleep
in peaæ.
mny
men
That
So, dn not
AEscHYLUs, Eumznidcs, trans. by PHtLIP
vELLAcorr,
pp. 170-1
In these lines Aeschylus is celebrating Athens' sucoa
course between the despotism ofthe
cess in steering
Kimonian oligarchs and the anarchy of the Ephialtan
WoRLD:
GREEK
265
BC
5OO-44O
Ephialtic reform. Stockton suggests that when the
Areopagus was deprived of its powers, tbe grøphe
may have been introduced to act as a'brake' on illconsidered decisions of the Ekklesia.Ìe
The
jury courts
Another reform thought to have been made by
Ephialtes was the introduction of multiple popular
courts, Ihe d,ikastería. The powers of the Areopagus
were transferred to the Boule, the Ekklesia and the
d,íkøsteria. The courts were now responsible for deter-
mining the fitness of potential office holders.
Additionally, magistrates were accountable to the
d,ilrusteria for what they did in office.
Jury service became a popular part of Sth-century
life, particularþ once Pericles introduced payment for
jury service. Archaeological evidence reveals much of
ihe equipment associated with the jury courts, such as
the kleroterioru (allotment machine), k'lepsydra (water
clocks, for timing of speeches) and bronze ballots by
which the jurors voted guilty or not guilty. The precise
location of the jury courts in the Agora has been much
disputed.
Èphialtes' measures were not simply the product of
an ideological commitment to democracy. The reforms
were partly a response to trends prevailing in the Sth
century-the change in the role of the archons, the
growing strength of the nary, the increased hostility to
Sparta, the failure of Kimon's policy.
Ephialtes died shortly after the passage of his
reforms.
Who killed Ephialtes?
Aristotle, writing about ninety years after the event,
claims that Ephialtes was assassinated by Aristodicus
of Tanagra. Antiphon, an Athenian orator writing about
forty years after the murder, could not be so precise'
radicals'.r7
Ephialtes may also have been responsible for
incrãasing public awareness of state affairs. A 4thcentury Greek historian, Anaximenes, wrote that
'Ephialtes had the Athenian written codes removed
from the acropolis and set up instead in the Council
House and Agora'.r8 Anyone who introduced a law to
the Ekklesia that was later found to be detrimental to
the people could be charged' This was called a graphe
Thts
tht¡se who murd,ered'
d,ßcouered'
to this dny,
Jones, 'The role of Ephialtes in the Rise of Athenian
Democracy', Classical Antiquity, L9B7 , p. 75.
r8Quoted in Stockton, op. cit., p. 48.
if someotæ
expected'
hß
associates, to conjecture whn were [Ephiahes']
tnwderers, øn'd, if nnt, to be implicated in th'e murder, it
would, twt harte beenfair to the associates. In add,ition,
th¿ ¡nurd¿rers of Ephiølæs di'd rct desire to hide the
bod.y so there would be rn d,ønger of betraying th'e dned'
ANTIpHoN, cited in D. RoLLER,'Who Murdered
Ephialtes?', p. 258
porãno*on. The introduction of this law cannot be
positively dated, but some scholars view it as another
r?L.
Ephialtes . . . haae tæuer been
ønd,
Plutarch wrote his biographies during ùe lst century
AD. He addresses Ephialtes'death in Source 8.50'
lelbid., p.45.
266
HISTORICAL
PERIODS
)
How are we to belieue ldnmen¿us' charge that Pericles
arra,ngerl the ossassinatian of the dnmncratù: lead,er
Ephiahes, who was hüfriend., as well as his partner in
his politi.cal program, out of sheer jealowy of his
Other reforms
In 457 BC the archonship was opened ro the Zeugitae,
the third economic class established by Solon. This
reputation? . . . Asfor Ephiahes, the truth is that the
aristocrats hød, good, reason to fear him, sirrce he was
relentless in calling to aîcount and prosecuting those
uho had, in any uay harmed the peoplc, ønd, so his
enemi¿s conspired. against him and secretly arranged,for
hirn to be murd.ered..
PLUTARcH, The Rí"se
and,
(ù/ro
meant that half the male citizens in Athens were eligible to hold office. Shortly after this the Thetes also
became eligible for the archonship. It is unclear from
the sources exactly who was responsible for these
changes.
Fall of Athcru, trans. by
l. scorr-KtLvERT,
lntt / an lt'ng an I
ust
/6e sources
pp. IZS_ó
Participation in the demo cra,cy
How many people took part in Athenian government?
James O'Neil has estimated that there would have
been 15000 places to be filled, based on the fact that
500 councillors served per year and assuming thirty
years per generation.2o The chairman of the council
(epistates) changed every day. It should be borne in
ng
c Vlhy was Ephialres killed?
; Who does Aristotle blarne for Ephialtes' death?
a
What does Antiphon soy on this matter?
;
Who d,id, Idomeneus cløim was responsible?
Consider the uarious theories about Ephialtes,
d,o you consider the most plausible?
death. Which
whv?
2oJ.
O'Neil, The Origins and Deaelopment of Ancient Greelr
Democracy, Rowman & Littlefield, London, 1995, p. 67.
The Long Valls
Construction dates:
478 Piraeus fortified (begun prior to Marathon)
479
458
44847
Asora
Athens'wallsrebuilt
Athens
Themistocles'
walls
rll
North and south walls built
Areopagus
Middle wall built
.''
/z-¿
Pericles'
walls
/-
îhemistocles'
walls
I
È/
èt
Pericles'
Bay
walls
of
Piraeus
of Zea
Saronic CuIf
0
I
kilometres
FIGURE
8.I6
The walls of Themistocles and Pericles
2