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Academic Skills Advice
Teach Yourself
Better Language Skills:
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation
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academic skills advice
Introduction
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
This Teach Yourself Booklet covers the basics in terms of the
mistakes that often occur in students’ academic writing for
Higher Education.
If you try working through
the booklet and feel
you would benefit from
further skills advice and
guidance, just email
(academic-skills@
bradford.ac.uk)
or telephone us
(01274 236 849).
The booklet contains information for you to read and activities
to practise what you have learnt. All answers can be found at the
back of the booklet.
Grammar - Rules for Articles (a, an, the)
Five Simple Rules
1. We use a or an when: ‘we do not know
which one’
nbecause there are a lot of these
kinds of things
3. We use no article when we make
generalizations using plural or
uncountable nouns,
e.g. Qualitative research places an
emphasis on unpacking the meaning
of a phenomenon for participants.
nit is not the only one of its kind (not
unique)
nit has not been discussed before in
your assignment
e.g. A theoretical framework is
identified to guide the research.
4. We normally use no article with the
names of people or places (but there
are exceptions to this rule see Part 2
below).
e.g. According to Jones (2004),
...; Research conducted at London
University...
2. We use the when: ‘we know which one’
nbecause it has been discussed
before
nit is defined by a phrase or clause
which follows
5. We use the / a as part of a fixed phrase,
e.g. a number of, the end of
nit is the only one of its kind in this
context
e.g. Once it has been identified, the
theoretical framework provides the
parameters of the study.
Five More Rules
1.With: prison, college, church, home,
hospital, etc. - when you discuss the
normal purpose of institutions, rather
than a particular building you don’t use
an article,
3. We use the in superlative phrases,
e.g. the most rigorous study
4. Normally with phrases of time, there is
no article,
e.g. the 25th of December, but on
Friday, at lunch, last semester, in
1997.
e.g. to be in prison, to leave school,
to go to university
BUT when you are talking about a
specific building you use an article,
e.g. the university is outside the
town centre
5. Generally there is no article with place
names,
2. We use a or an with jobs,
e.g. [Name] is a researcher at...
e.g. In Africa, In Oxford street, In
Bradford, etc. but, in the U.K., the
Rocky mountains, the Suez canal,
the United States
Adapted from: Cunningham, S. and Moor, P. 2000. Cutting Edge Upper Intermediate,
Longman by Marion Bowman.
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Activity 1 Test yourself on articles
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Check the statements for either unnecessary or missing articles. Mark these on in
coloured ink.
The research is important as it improves the nursing practice.
2.
One of strengths of qualitative research is that it captures participants’ real
experiences.
3.
The defendant was then sent to the prison to serve a five year sentence.
4.
The aim of this essay is to critique the research article on evidence based practice.
A research article is a longitudinal study of a small number of participants.
5.
According to a study by the Hornville and Jowell (1994), conducted at the Leeds
University, qualitative research is more suitable when there is not specific theory
being tested.
6.
The third study had largest sample size, however, the research was conducted by
research assistant. This may have resulted in bias.
7.
Researcher recruited participants by advertising in the professional magazine
providing details about a study.
8.
The researcher conducted the semi-structured face-to-face interviews to have
better understanding of the phenomenon under study.
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
1.
Grammar - 3rd person singular with regular verbs
Nouns are singular or plural and so too are verbs – this means they have to match when a
verb is used alongside a noun. This is especially easy to get wrong with the array of reporting
verbs we use in academic work.
This can be confusing because we are used to verbs being action/feeling words to tell us
what something or someone is doing or feeling. This becomes important as ‘it’ (as a neutral
subject pronoun) is used a good deal in academic work. It always takes the 3rd person singular
addition of an –s.
Even reporting verbs have to match the implied ‘number’ of the noun they go with. This is
called subject-verb agreement.
All sentences have a verb and a subject.
So we tend to be used to these forms of
sentence:
This equates to reporting and discussing
authors and research or covering events in
your writing. For example:
nHe plays play badminton.
nSmith and Khan state... (they state)
but Smith states... (he/she or even ‘it’
referring to the research).
nEvery horse eats hay.
nThe course starts in September.
But we sometimes forget about more
‘abstract’ forms that still need the added –s.
nMy car needs a new tyre.
nThe hatred grows amongst rival groups.
nThe report closes with key
recommendations.
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Grammar - Verb Tenses:
Present Perfect and Past Simple
These tenses crop up often in academic
writing, so it’s a good idea to understand the
difference between them.
When are they used?
nPresent perfect is first and foremost a
present tense. Whatever is being stated
as a direct impact on ‘now’.
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
nPast simple can only relate the past, even
if it is used to generalise.
So, the present perfect cannot be used if
there is no link (implied or real) with the
present situation or condition. And the past
tense in its simple form should not be used
to describe something in an academic report
or essay that does actually have a bearing on
the present context or circumstances.
nThe present perfect is used to convey new
information but if the item is continued in
the writing, the past simple would then be
used:
‘Andersen et al. (1990) have suggested that
using integrative treatments with males
increases the chance of recovery. They
studied two hundred men, aged between 1825, to obtain their results.’
This shows you are using their work as
having relevance to your discussion now but
the continued use of present perfect to make
have studied might have implied that the
study itself is actually still ongoing.
Activity 2 Practical application of Present
Perfect & Past Simple
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Put the verb given in its infinitive form in brackets into either the present perfect or past
simple then check your answers.
1. “Where’s your key?” “I don’t know. I
2.I
it.” (to lose)
very tired, so I lay down on the bed and went to sleep. (to be)
3.Mary
abroad for a while but she is back again now. (to go)
4.Bob
out but he’ll be back in an hour if you need to talk to him. (to go)
5.I did German at school but I
most of it. (to forget)
6.I meant to phone my dad last night but I
7.I
. (to forget)
a headache earlier but I feel fine now. (to have)
8.Look! There’s an ambulance over there. There
an accident. (to be)
9. They’re still building the new road. They
10. “Is Helen still here?”
11. The police
12.Anne
(to give, to lose)
13. Where’s my bike? It
(to be, to go)
it. (not/to finish)
“No, she
out.” (just/to go)
three people but later they let them go. (to arrest)
me her address but I can’t visit, I’m afraid I
outside the house. It
14. What do you think of my grammar? Do you think I
it.
!
? (to improve)
Adapted from: Murphy, R. (1994) English grammar in use : a self-study reference and practice
book for intermediate students : with answers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Forming the Present perfect and Past Simple
Regular verbs form the past participle using –(e)d, e.g. I walk (present simple), I have walked
(present perfect), I walked (past simple) to university. Simple!
However, there are about 100 common verbs which form the past and past participle in other
ways – these are ‘irregular verbs’. For example: the verb ‘to see’ –
Present simple
Present perfect
(the past participle)
Past simple
see
seen
saw
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
I see my personal tutor regularly.
I have seen my personal tutor this morning.
I saw my personal tutor often last year.
Activity 3 Fill in the gaps in the verb table.
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Present simple
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Present perfect
(the past participle)
Past simple
CHOOSE
FELT
PUT
PAID
GROWN
CALL
GAVE
SEEM
LOST
SELL
BEATEN
TOLD
CATCH
BECAME
KEEP
FALLEN
COST
ATE
DRIVEN
SHOWED
Activity 4 Irregular verb formation patterns.
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Even irregular verbs follow some patterns, however. See if you can identify which of these
has a different pattern to the others in the list. An example is shown.
Example: To cut, to see, to hit, to shut
to see is the right answer (see, seen, saw). All the others are the same in present simple,
present perfect and past simple forms (cut, cut, cut; hit, hit, hit; shut, shut, shut).
The odd one out:
1
To drink, to think, to swim, to sing, to begin:
2
To fight, to think, to bring, to buy, to teach:
3
To break, to speak, to steal, to wear, to wake:
4
To stand, to lend, to build, to spend, to bend:
5
To burst, to let, to set, to hurt, to shoot:
6
To throw, to say, to know, to fly, to blow:
Adapted from: Allsop, J. (1989) Making sense of English grammar exercises. London: Cassell.
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Grammar - Using the passive voice
Using the passive voice in an introduction to an essay
Before we look at the use of the passive voice, let’s look at an example of an introduction
below.
Activity 5a Read through the example and identify the
following types of statements:
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
1. The broad global context for the topic
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
2.The main topic of the report / purpose of
the report
General ideas
3. The main argument and main source of
evidence
4.The structure of the report
5.The limitations of the essay and the type
of recommendations that will be made
Specific ideas
If you are unfamiliar with the passive voice, you are looking for a sentence where the
subject of the sentence (the person doing something at the front of the sentence), has
been left out; instead the passive is used, e.g.:
n
Passive: This topic will be analysed.
NOT
n
Active:
I will analyse this topic.
Using the passive voice can make your work sound more formal in style. Notice the form
of the passive voice, i.e. (a form of ‘be’ + verb with –ed ending). It can be used in any verb
tense: present, past, future or conditional.
Introduction Example
China is currently experiencing rapid economic reform. The company, Elixir, part of
China’s car manufacturing industry is facing a new and highly competitive market-based
economic environment. This report addresses the issues of what would be the most
appropriate decision–making model for this company to use in order to compete profitably
in the new market situation. The company needs to develop a more sophisticated model
to compete on equal terms with foreign car manufacturers if it is to survive. The report
first examines the present decision-making model used in Elixir. Secondly, the main steps
and techniques in effective decision-making are outlined. Finally, a comparison is made
between the company’s current practices and new decision-making models which are
more suitable to a market-lead economy. Although it is acknowledged in this report that
there are likely to be some organisational and financial difficulties in introducing these
changes, recommendations will be made for more decision-support systems and modern
business decisions-making techniques to be introduced within the next two years.
Activity 5b Spot the Passive Construction.
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Now see if you can identify any examples of the passive voice in the introductory
paragraph above. Mark these up in coloured ink.
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Activity 6 Creating Passive Constructions.
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Practice sentences: Try to put the passive voice in each of these sentences that might appear
in an introduction.
1. Three factors
(be + consider) in this report. Firstly, …
2. The proposal
(be + evaluate) in the light of these new developments.
3. The problem
(be + define) as essentially an HR matter.
4. The following three topics
(be + make) between tangible and intangible
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
5. Firstly, a comparison
factors, then…
(be + cover) in this report.
As you can see from the examples above, the present tense, e.g. is analysed, or future tense,
e.g. will be analysed, are the two passive forms most often used in an introduction.
Using the passive voice in a conclusion
The passive voice can also used in the conclusion, but in slightly different ways. Here are
some examples:
1.In this essay..(topic x).. has been evaluated…/ has been analysed (summarising)
2. The argument can be summarised as follows:… (summarising)
3.It is recommended that the company should introduce… (recommending)
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Spelling and Vocabulary - Common Mistakes
Advice/advise
nAdvice (with a C) is a noun e.g. “The study
skills adviser gave me good advice”.
nAdvise (with an S) is a verb e.g. “They
advised me to always read my work
carefully for spelling and grammar
errors”.
However
The same rule applies to:
n“Reflection is central to good practice,
however it is only effective if the
reflection results in action.” = WRONG
nPractice is a noun e.g. “Are you going to
football practice tonight?”
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
new iPhone for my birthday”. Be positive in
your statements of aim i.e. “This essay will
explain…”
You should not use an adverb, such as
however, to join two sentences. So:
nPractise is a verb e.g. “You’ll have to
practise more if you want to make the
team.”
n“Reflection is central to good practice.
However, it is only effective if the
reflection results in action.” = RIGHT
Both/each
Includes/Comprises
Both does not mean the same as each –
“There is a house on both sides of the street”
means that the house somehow reaches
across the street, to be on both sides at the
same time. If you mean that there is a house
on the left side of the street and another on
the right side, you should write “There is a
house on each side of the street”
Includes/ including should not be used to
describe the complete set referred to. It
implies a sub-set of the whole.
Effect/affect
effect = noun e.g.
nExercise has an effect on health
nThe effects of smoking are well known.
affect = verb e.g.
nExercise affects health
nHis work was badly affected by his illness.
Fewer/less and number/amount:
Fewer/number applies to plural, countable
nouns. So: “I have fewer coins in my pocket
than you” or “I have a smaller number of
coins”.
Less/ amount applies to singular, noncountable nouns. So: “I have less money in
my pocket than you” or “I have a smaller
amount of money.”
If in doubt, think about whether you could
sensibly talk about one of a thing – you could
say “one coin” but you couldn’t say “one
money”. Similarly, you could have less water
(because you wouldn’t say “one water”) but
fewer pints (because you would say “one
pint”). In the same way, you would have an
amount of water, but a number of pints
Hopefully
So “Gibbs’ reflective cycle includes four
stages: description, feelings, evaluation,
analysis” would be wrong because you have
listed all the four stages.
If you wrote “Gibbs’ four-stage reflective
cycle includes evaluation and analysis” you
would be correct because you have only
listed part of the set.
If you want to describe the whole set, use
“comprises” i.e. “Gibbs’ reflective cycle
comprises four stages: description, feelings,
evaluation, analysis.”
Invariably/inevitably
These mean on every occasion, without
exception.
So, if you write “Nurses invariably transfer
infections between patients”, you are telling
your reader that this happens every time, for
every nurse, and every patient.
If you write “Nurses transfer infections
between patients”, the statement is not quite
so strong, but there is still an implication that
this always happens.
Instead use:
n“frequently” (if it happens a lot but not all
the time)
n“occasionally” (if it happens sometimes
but not always)
n“infrequently/rarely” (if it only happens
now and again)
If you write: “This essay will hopefully explain
how Freud’s theory of the ego can explain
much human behaviour”, you imply that
you have no control over what the essay will
do – just as if you said “Hopefully, I will get a
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ne.g. “Nurses occasionally transfer
infections between patients. “
You can also use a conditional “can/
could….if…” e.g. “Nurses can transfer
infections between patients if they do
not observe proper hygiene protocols.”
a c a d e m i c - s k i lls
Loose/lose
Research (also advice, evidence)
“to loose” means to set free or detach
something voluntarily or deliberately e.g. To
loose the dog from his lead means you chose
to let the dog run free.
These words are non-countable nouns, like
water, air, knowledge and therefore never
take the indefinite article “a”. So, just as we
would not write:
“to lose” means to be deprived of something
by accident, negligence, misadventure
etc. e.g. if you say “I lost my wallet at the
fair”, you don’t mean that you chose to let
the wallet go; it happened by accident, or
someone took it against your will.
n“A water is leaking through the ceiling”
Numbers
Within a sentence, use words for twenty
or fewer and numerals for anything above
twenty:
nThere is only one exit from the building
nThe journey takes fifteen minutes
nThere are 22 members of the group
nThere are 153 entries in the catalogue.
BUT, if the number is prefixed or affixed with
a symbol – for example, £10 or 5% - then use
the numerals.
but instead:
n“Research has shown that…” or…
n“A [research project] or [research study]
has shown….”
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
So, if you write: “Without respect, individuals
will not feel part of the community and they
loose their sense of belonging,” you are
suggesting that these people will freely and
deliberately give up their sense of belonging.
If you want to make it clear that they will
have it taken away without their consent, you
should use “lose”.
n“A research has shown that…”
However, words like research can take the
definite article “the”, where you are writing
about a specific instance, just as other noncountable nouns, such as water, can. So, we
could write:
n“The water is leaking through the
ceiling…”
n“The research has confirmed that…”
Says/writes/states
“Smith (2010) says that ….” – avoid this when
referring to sources you have read. The
author is not speaking to anyone, he/she is
writing, so: “Smith (2010) writes…”. You can
avoid the problem altogether by using words
like “argues”, “describes”, “points out” etc,
which can refer equally well to written or
spoken language.
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Spelling & Vocabulary - Linking words
Linking words, also called ‘transition words’ indicate to a reader that the text is moving on
in some way or that there is a connection between two elements or more. They allow you to
control the way the reader responds to your work and are part of managing flow.
Activity 7 Categorising linking words.
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Put the linking words below into the correct columns:
firstly
althoughDespite the fact that
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
In addition
finallyIn contrast
Due toAs a result ofIn general
On account of
secondlyIn order to
Initially
Nevertheless
On the whole
HoweverAs well asIn conclusion
Ultimately
Furthermore
Sequence / time
Adding another
idea
Hence
because
Contrast
Cause and
result
Concluding,
generalising
Activity 8 Practice sentences - fill in the gaps using the
words from the table above.
1. The privatisation project was organised
the urban areas.
improve the supply of water to
2.A much greater percentage of people in urban areas has access to clean water,
the majority of people in rural areas still lack safe water and sanitation.
3. The contract had to be cancelled
company.
the poor performance of the private
4.
, privatising water provision in developing countries has not yielded the
expected results. (This sentence is at the end of the essay).
5. Privatisation results in greater investment in infrastructure,
employment for the local population.
it provides
6.As part of his speech, Mr Jones made three major points:
that City
Water had not been at fault,
that the Kenyan government was trying to
make a political point and
that the company had in fact supplied
200 000 new customers with water.
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Spelling & Vocabulary - Academic Reporting Verbs
Why think about your use of
reporting verbs?
We use reporting verbs all the time – it’s that
he said X..., she told me about Y... We often
relate to another person, what someone
else has said. The problem happens with our
approach to academic written work.
nYour choice of language gives your
reader (your marker) a clear impression
of whether you are achieving this.
What this means in practice is that unless
you know the rules of academic style so
thoroughly, and have sufficient mastery and
experience to be allowed to ‘break’ these
rules, it’s just not logical to claim that a
source, text or scholar can actively instruct
us from the page.
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
nDegree work is supposed to be reasoned,
critical, intellectual, informed, and, above
all, logical.
What types of verbs should be
avoided in academic written
work?
So verbs or verb phrases such as to see, to
look at, to talk about, to show, to say, to tell,
to think, to move on are rather redundant
– unless you are actually conveying what
someone said during a speech, for example.
What can you use instead?
When referring to what your paper’s argument or the sources or their authors are conveying
here are some verbs you might try using:
to describe
to dispute
to comment
to observe
to discuss
to state
to argue
to evaluate
to predict
to suggest
to define
to proceed
to illustrate
to believe
to assert
to conclude
to recognise
to purport
to investigate
to estimate
to criticise
to demonstrate
to concede
to report
to indicate
to highlight
to confirm
to examine
to advance
to imply
to hypothesise
to theorise
to posit
to challenge
to postulate
to defend
How are they used?
They can be used in an active sentence in
the present tense:
nHenson (2010) implies here that should
further research be commissioned its
focus should...
nThe researchers assert that their findings
were conclusive, not merely suggestive
(Fenwick et al., 2008).
They can be used in passive constructions
in the present tense:
nIt is argued in this essay that in certain
cases there is little evidence to support...
nThe worsening situation within this sector
is demonstrated in the report which
follows.
Likewise, they can be easily used in
passive constructions in the past tense:
They can be used in an active sentence in
the past tense:
nIt has been suggested by two recent
studies that...
nPeshan’s study of the previous decade
investigated the effect of blood glucose
on perceived concentration levels (2010).
nDiscrepancies in the data have been
criticised by current studies and these
criticisms form the basis of this paper’s
argument.
nCross hypothesised that over-exposure
to ‘sanitised violence’ could lead to
propensity for aggressive response
(2002).
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They can also be used in active, personal
pronoun sentences when reflective writing
is being used, in either present or past
tense:
nIn the following reflection, I argue that it
was appropriate to defer to my mentor
in this case due to my clinical experience
being limited.
nI assert that neither theory is adequate
in its totality; however, a combination of
the effective elements of both is more
effective and directly applicable.
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
When are they used? Deciding the
‘expressive strength’ of reporting verbs.
nSome reporting verbs feel obvious when
compared with one another: purporting is
‘weaker’ than claiming something; arguing
is ‘stronger’ than suggesting; challenging
is ‘weaker’ than disputing something.
nWhat it is important to remember is that
once you know what all the verbs mean
then they can be used appropriately
as you like with varying degrees of
‘expressive strength’.
nDon’t forget, the list above is not
exhaustive – there are many more you are
likely to come across within your reading.
nFairly neutral reporting verbs become
less neutral if they are taken as the
key point of somebody’s hypothesis or
theory. If an experimental paper set out to
‘describe’ features of something, then this
becomes the author’s main focus – not just
something used to explain a scenario or
situation, for instance.
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Punctuation - Apostrophes
When to use an apostrophe
(and when not to)
nThe nurses’ training (the training of a
group of nurses)
Use an apostrophe: When a letter is missed
out in a contraction. Contractions are used
in informal writing to reflect the way we
speak:
nThe dogs’ tails (the tails of a number of dogs)
nI am = I’m (the apostrophe replaces the
letter ‘a’)
nIt is = It’s (the apostrophe replaces the
letter ‘i’)
nWho is = Who’s (the apostrophe replaces
the letter ‘i’)
In practice, you should avoid using
contractions in formal/ academic writing
– they are too conversational. In academic
writing ALWAYS use the full form.
To indicate possession or belonging:
Where something belongs to an individual, or
a single thing, use ’s
So, “The Queen’s visit to Bradford” means
that one queen visits, but “The Queens’ visit
to Bradford” means that there are several
queens all visiting together!
BUT NOTE THE EXCEPTION
Its – as in “the dog wagged its tail” has no
apostrophe (just as his, ours, theirs etc. don’t
have one)
Do NOT use an apostrophe:
In plurals (when you are referring to more
than one of a thing or person):
nThe nurses came on duty at 8am
nThe dogs barked (more than one dog was
barking)
nThere are many theories to explain this
nThe doll belonging to a single girl = the
girl’s doll
…and this applies even if the plural is an
abbreviation:
nThe book belonging to Sarah = Sarah’s book
nThe MPs voted against the Bill (not MP’s)
nThe duties of a single nurse = the nurse’s
duties
nI got three CDs for £10 (not CD’s)
nThe tail of a dog = the dog’s tail
nPlural forms such as women and children
take the form women’s or children’s as
possessives
nSainsbury’s (as in the supermarket
belonging to Mr Sainsbury)
To indicate things belonging to a group of
people or things, use s’
nThe girls’ dolls (all the dolls belonging to
all the girls)
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
nThey are = They’re (the apostrophe
replaces the letter ‘a’)
nThe boys’ game (one game played by a
number of boys)
Don’t forget:
nThe correct form to indicate possession is
whose e.g. Whose turn is it? Who’s always
means “who is” or “who has”
nWhen writing about decades e.g. 1980s is
correct, NOT 1980’s
Activity 9 Are the apostrophes in the correct places in the
following sentences?
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
1.If a child see’s their mother reading they are more likely to do it themselves with their own children.
2. The dogs stole the cats milk.
3.Social worker’s must follow a strict code of practice.
4. Guidelines are provided to help nurse’s follow the correct procedures.
5. The student nurse’s main role in the scenario was as an observer.
6.ASBO’s are often issued to young people.
7. The case was heard at the Law Courts.
8. The Court’s decision was to sentence the man to ten years’ in prison.
9.I bought my lunch from Greens bakery.
10.I had cheese and tomato sandwiches’.
For more information on the use of the apostrophe, try:
nThe Apostrophe Protection Society: http://www.apostrophe.org.uk/
nTrask’s Guide to Punctuation. Available online at: http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/
department/docs/punctuation/node00.html
nFor a detailed online tutorial: http://www.writing-kit.com/apostrophes/index.html
n…and to test your knowledge: http://www.writing-kit.com/ApConsol/index.html.
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Punctuation - Using Commas
Commas are important because they make your writing easier to understand. The way
it works, is that commas give readers a short break, so that they can fully understand
the meaning of the phrase that they have just read. This is especially important if the
meaning of the next phrase / clause (section of a sentence containing a verb) is a bit
different to the previous clause.
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
Commas are needed...
A.
Between two clauses of a sentence (often in front of linking words, e.g., however,
and...)
B.
To separate items in a list
C.
Where you could use brackets to show that this is a piece of extra background
information (non-defining relative clauses)
D.
After the introductory clause at the start of a sentence that sets the scene, e.g. In
addition, ... During the data collection phase, ...
Activity 10 Match examples 1 – 6 below with functions
A to D above
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
1. The data was then recorded, anonymised, and coded.
2. The data transformation process should continue throughout the study, and should not be
seen as distinct from data analysis.
3. The sample size, which consisted of 11 student nurses, was relatively small.
4. Whilst the study was qualitative, there were quantitative elements within it.
5. The study was made more rigorous by the fact that the interviews were conducted by one
researcher, and the data analysis was undertaken by another independent researcher.
6.In conclusion, the research made a valuable contribution to this field of study, despite
there being some limitations.
Activity 11 Punctuate the following sentence…
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
One disadvantage associated with conducting face to face interviews is that they are time
consuming. However telephone interviews may not always be suitable as participants may
not feel comfortable disclosing personal information over the phone and it is difficult for
researchers to build rapport (Polgar and Thomas 2000).
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Grammar, Spelling, Vocabulary & Punctuation Formal and Informal Writing
Activity 12 Language features of Formal and Informal Writing
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Now that you have explored the most common issues of grammar, spelling & punctuation,
see if you can relate some of these rules to your academic writing. Identify which these
language features are indicative of formal (academic) writing and which indicate an
informal style.
Formal
writing
1.
Contractions, e.g. I’d, He’s
2.
Phrasal verbs, e.g. get on with
3.
Passive voice, e.g. The price has been increased
4.
Adjectives, intensifiers, extreme language e.g. absolutely
unbelievable
5.
Using a lot of the following punctuation marks: ! - ?
6.
Linking words like, e.g. nevertheless, furthermore, conversely, at
present
7.
Leaving out words in short phrases, e.g. Just read your note
8.
Linking words like, e.g. I mean, so, by the way, at any rate, talking
9.
Single word verbs e.g. to retain, to depart
10.
Starting a sentence with ‘And’ or ‘But’ or ‘Because’
11.
Colourful language for expressing opinions and emotions e.g. To
be quite honest, Believe it or not, Guess what?
12.
Phrases for shared knowledge, e.g. as you know, Just like you
said, If you know what I mean
13.
Personal pronouns, e.g. I, you, me, they
14.
Complex sentences, i.e. sentences using a number of clauses
linked by linking words
15.
Vague language, e.g. thing, stuff, it, this, those
16.
Rhetorical questions, e.g. Did you know that…?
17.
Expressing ideas strongly, e.g. Nuclear power is the only way
forward.
18.
Using tentative / hedging language e.g. It is possible that
nuclear power… / It seems that…
Informal
writing
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
Language features
about, and, but…
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Activity 13 Formal versus Informal Language - Swap It Out
(Answers are at the end of the booklet)
Read the informal statements and try to write a formal alternative. Compare your formal
version with ours at the back of the booklet.
Informal Statement
1.
Formal Alternative
I think that…
Tip: Be tentative (soft language) when giving your judgement.
2.
Finding enough water for everyone in the world is still a huge
problem...
T e a c h y o u r s e l f B e tt e r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s
Tip: Use formal nouns and adjectives not emotional or extreme
language.
3.
Nobody can say how climate change will affect water supply.
Tip: Don’t use words which refer to people informally (I, you,
them, everyone, nobody)
4.
They did a survey on the way people use water.
Tip: Try the passive voice.
5.
And us? We should use water more carefully at home.
Tip: Don’t start the sentence with ‘and’, don’t ask the reader
questions and take the personal pronoun out (we).
6.
Because the world’s water supply is finite…
Tip: Don’t start a sentence with ‘and’, ‘but’ or because. Use
formal linking words instead.
7.
In this essay, I will look at...
Tip: Get rid of ‘I’, formal verb for ‘look at’
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Answers to all activities
Activity 1 Test yourself on articles
Research is important as it improves the nursing practice. (see Part 1, rule 3)
2.
One of strengths the of qualitative research is that it captures participants’ real experiences.
(see Part 1, rule 5)
3.
The defendant was then sent to prison to serve a five year sentence. (See Part 2, Rule 1).
4.
The aim of this essay is to critique a research article on evidence based practice. The research
article is a longitudinal study of a small sample number of participants (see Part 1, Rule 1 and 2).
5.
According to a study by Hornville and Jowell (1994), conducted at Leeds University, qualitative
research is more suitable when there is not specific theory being tested. (see Part 1, rule 4)
6.
The third study had the largest sample size, however, the research was conducted by a
research assistant. This may have resulted in bias. (see Part 2, rule 3 and 2)
7.
The researcher recruited the participants by advertising in a professional magazine providing
details about the study. (see Part 1, rules 1 and 2)
8.
The researcher conducted the semi-structured face-to-face interviews to have a better
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
Answers to all activities
1.
Activity 2 Practical application of Present Perfect & Past Simple
1. Have lost / ‘ve lost
2.Was
3.Went
4. Has gone / ‘s gone
5. Have forgotten / ‘ve forgotten
6.Forgot
7.Had
8. Has been / ‘s been
9. Haven’t finished
10. Has just gone / ‘s just gone
11.Arrested
12. Gave ... have lost / ‘ve lost
13. Was ... has gone / ‘s gone
14. Have improved / ‘ve improved
Activity 3 Fill in the gaps in the verb table
Present simple
Present perfect
(the past participle)
Past simple
1
CHOOSE
CHOSEN
CHOSE
2
FEEL
FELT
FELT
3
PUT
PUT
PUT
4
PAY
PAID
PAID
5
GROW
GROWN
GREW
6
CALL
CALLED
CALLED
7
GIVE
GIVEN
GAVE
8
SEEM
SEEMED
SEEMED
9
LOSE
LOST
LOST
10
SELL
SOLD
SOLD
11
BEAT
BEATEN
BEAT
12
TELL
TOLD
TOLD
13
CATCH
CAUGHT
CAUGHT
14
BECOME
BECOME
BECAME
15
KEEP
KEPT
KEPT
16
FALL
FALLEN
FELL
17
COST
COST
COST
18
EAT
EATEN
ATE
19
DRIVE
DRIVEN
DROVE
20
SHOW
SHOWN
SHOWED
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Activity 4 Irregular verb formation patterns
The odd one out:
1
To drink, to think, to swim, to sing, to begin:
TO THINK – think, thought, thought
2
To fight, to think, to bring, to buy, to teach:
TO TEACH – teach, taught, taught
3
To break, to speak, to steal, to wear, to wake:
TO WEAR – wear, worn, wore
4
To stand, to lend, to build, to spend, to bend:
TO STAND – stand, stood, stood
5
To burst, to let, to set, to hurt, to shoot:
TO SHOOT – shoot, shot, shot
6
To throw, to say, to know, to fly, to blow:
TO SAY – say, said, said
Activity 5a & 5b Activity b Identify the types of statements & Spot the Passive
Construction
Answers to all activities
China is currently experiencing rapid economic reform (1). The company, Elixir, part of China’s car manufacturing industry is facing a new and highly competitive market-based economic environment (2). This report
addresses the issues of what would be the most appropriate decision–making model for this company to
use in order to compete profitably in the new market situation (2). The company needs to develop a more
sophisticated model to compete on equal terms with foreign car manufacturers if it is to survive (3). The
report first examines the present decision-making model used in Elixir. Secondly, the main steps and techniques in effective decision-making are outlined (4). Finally, a comparison is made between the company’s
current practices and new decision-making models which are more suitable to a market-lead economy (4).
Although it is acknowledged in this report that there are likely to be some organisational and financial difficulties in introducing these changes, recommendations will be made for more decision-support systems and
modern business decisions-making techniques to be introduced within the next two years (5).
Activity 6 Creating Passive Constructions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Three factors will be considered OR are considered in this report. Firstly, …
The proposal will be evaluated OR is evaluated in the light of these new developments.
The problem will be defined OR is defined as essentially an HR matter.
The following three topics will be covered OR are covered in this report.
Firstly, a comparison will be made OR is made between tangible and intangible factors, then…
Activity 7 Categorising linking words
Sequence / time
Adding another
idea
firstly secondly
finally
initially
in addition
as well as
furthermore
Contrast
although
despite the fact
that
in contrast
nevertheless
however
Cause and
result
due to
because
as a result of
on account of
to / in order to
Concluding,
generalising
in general
on the whole
in conclusion
ultimately
Activity 8 Practice sentences - fill in the gaps using the words from the table above.
1. The privatisation project was organised in order to improve the supply of water to the urban areas.
2.A much greater percentage of people in urban areas has access to clean water, however / in contrast
/ nevertheless / despite the fact that, the majority of people in rural areas still lack safe water and
sanitation.
3. The contract had to be cancelled due to / as a result of / on account of the poor performance of
the private company.
4. In general / In conclusion / On the whole / Ultimately, privatising water provision in developing
countries has not yielded the expected results.
5. Privatisation results in greater investment in infrastructure, in addition / furthermore, it provides
employment for the local population.
6.As part of his speech, Mr Jones made three major points: firstly, that City Water had not been at
fault, secondly, that the Kenyan government was trying to make a political point, and finally, that the
company had in fact supplied 200 000 new customers with water.
Activity 9 Practice sentences - fill in the gaps using the words from the table above.
1.If a child sees their mother reading they are more likely to do it themselves with their own children.
2. The dogs stole the cat’s milk. (If only one cat; cats’ if more than one cat).
3.Social workers must follow a strict code of practice.
4. Guidelines are provided to help nurses follow the correct procedures.
5. The student nurse’s main role in the scenario was as an observer. NO CORRECTION NEEDED –
SINGLE NOUN WITH POSSESSIVE APOSTROPHE.
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6. ASBOs are often issued to young people.
7. The case was heard at the Law Courts. NO CORRECTION NEEDED.
8. The Court’s decision was to sentence the man to ten years in prison.
9.I bought my lunch from Green’s bakery. (If the bakery is owned by one person called Green;
Greens’ if owned by a family called Green)
10.I had cheese and tomato sandwiches.
Activity 10 Match examples 1 – 6 below with functions A to D above
1>>>B
2>>>A
3>>>C
4>>>D
5>>>A
6>>>D then A.
Activity 11 Punctuate the following sentence…
Answers to all activities
One disadvantage associated with conducting face to face interviews, is that they are time consuming.
However, telephone interviews may not always be suitable, as participants may not feel comfortable
disclosing personal information over the phone, and it is difficult for researchers to build rapport (Polgar
and Thomas 2000).
Activity 12 Language features of Formal and Informal Writing
Language features
Formal
writing
Informal
writing
1.
Contractions, e.g. I’d, He’s
X
2.
Phrasal verbs, e.g. get on with
X
3.
Passive voice, e.g. The price has been increased
4.
Adjectives, intensifiers, extreme language e.g. absolutely unbelievable
X
5.
Using a lot of the following punctuation marks: ! - ?
X
6.
Linking words like, e.g. nevertheless, furthermore, conversely, at present
7.
Leaving out words in short phrases, e.g. Just read your note
X
8.
Linking words like, e.g. I mean, so, by the way, at any rate, talking about, and,
but…
X
9.
Single word verbs e.g. to retain, to depart
10.
Starting a sentence with ‘And’ or ‘But’ or ‘Because’
X
11.
Colourful language for expressing opinions and emotions e.g.
To be quite honest, Believe it or not, Guess what?
X
12.
Phrases for shared knowledge, e.g. as you know, Just like you said, If you
know what I mean
X
X
X
X
13.
Personal pronouns, e.g. I, you, me, they
14.
Complex sentences, i.e. sentences using a number of clauses linked by
linking words
X
X
15.
Vague language, e.g. thing, stuff, it, this, those
X
16.
Rhetorical questions, e.g. Did you know that…?
X
17.
Expressing ideas strongly, e.g. Nuclear power is the only way forward.
18.
Using tentative / hedging language e.g. It is possible that nuclear power… /
It seems that…
X
X
Activity 13 Formal versus Informal Language - Swap It Out
Possible formal alternative version
1.
from the evidence presented above,
it seems that… OR
it could be argued that…
2.
Finding sufficient water for the global population remains a significant challenge.
3.
It is impossible to predict how climate change will affect water supply.
4.
A survey on water usage was conducted.
5.
Domestic water usage should be more carefully monitored.
6.
Due to the fact that the world’s water supply is finite
7.
In this essay, x y z will be discussed / analysed / evaluated etc.
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How can you contact us?
academic-skills
@bradford.ac.uk
01274 236849
www.bradford.ac.uk/
academic-skills/
@UniBradSkills
We can arrange for this material to be transcribed
into an accessible format such as Braille, large print,
E-text (compatible with screen-reading software) or
digital audio such as CD.
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