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Chromosomes Bashdar Mahmud Hussen M.Sc. Biotechnology Hawler Medical University, Iraq [email protected] [email protected] History of Chromosome Karl Nagali (1842) E. Russow (1872) first description A. Schneider (1873) chromosomes & cell division Strasburger (1875) Walter Flemming (1877) chromatin W. Roux ( 1883) chromosome & inheritance Male vs Female • MALE • Usually the Y chromosome. • Y is usually smaller • Male genotype = XY • FEMALE • Usually the X chromosome. • Larger than the Y • Female genotype XX Except Birds Male = XX Female = XY Number of chromosomes • Normally, all the individuals of a species have the same number of chromosomes. • Presence of a whole sets of chromosomes is called euploidy. • It includes haploids, diploids, triploids, tetraploids Polyploidy. • Gametes normally contain only one set of chromosome – this number is called Haploid Somatic cells usually contain two sets of chromosome 2n : Diploid Tijo and Levan Chromosome Size • In contrast to other cell organelles, the size of chromosomes shows variation depending on the stages of cell division. Interphase: chromosome are longest & thinnest Prophase: there is a progressive decrease in their length & increase in thickness Anaphase: chromosomes are smallest. Metaphase: Chromosomes are the most easily observed and studied during metaphase when they are very thick. Therefore, chromosomes measurements are generally taken during mitotic metaphase. CHROMOSOME MORPHOLOGY (A–T) Telomeres Chromosome Structure Centromere Short arm Telomere Centromere Metacentric Chromosome Long arm Submetacentric Chromosome Acrocentric Telocentric Chromosome Chromosome Centromeres and Telomeres • Centromeres and telomeres are two essential features of all eukaryotic chromosomes. • Each provide a unique function i.e., absolutely necessary for the stability of the chromosome. • Centromeres are required for the segregation of the centromere during meiosis and mitosis. • Teleomeres provide terminal stability to the chromosome and ensure its survival Material of the chromosomes The nucleoplasm contains many thread like coiled and elongated structure which take basic stain are called chromatin. Chromatin consists of : 1. (1:1) 2. (1:0.6) 3. (1:0.1) Euchromatin Portions of chromosomes that stain lightly are only partially condensed, this chromatin is called Euchromatin. It represents most of the chromatin that separate after mitosis. It contains structural genes which replicate and transcribe during G & S1 phase of interphase. Heterochromatin In the dark staining regions, the chromatin remains in the condensed state and is called heterochromatin It is characterized by high content of repititive DNA sequences. It is thought that in the heterochromatin, DNA is tightly packed in the form 30 nm fiber. • Heterochromatin has been further classified into two groups: (i) Constitutive (ii) Facultative. Constitutive heterochromatin remains permanently in the heterochromatic stage, i.e., it does not revert to the euchromatic stage. Facultative heterochromatin such type of heterochromatin is not permanently maintained in the condensed state; instead it undergoes periodic dispersal & during this time is transcription ally active. Ex. X-chromosome in the mammalian female. Euchromatin (E) vs Heterochromatin (H) Fig. 11 H E DNase Being more condensed (tightly packed), heterochromatin is resistant to DNase digestion. Chromosomes in eukaryotes • Found in the nucleus • Condensed and visible during cell division • At the beginning of mitosis they can be seen to consist of two threads (sister chromatids) joined by a centromere • The sister chromatids are identical copies • During mitosis the sister chromatids separate and are placed into two nuclei Bacterial Chromosome • Single, circular DNA molecule located in the nucleoid region of cell Chromosomes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes are different PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES single chromosome plus plasmids many chromosomes circular chromosome linear chromosomes made only of DNA made of chromatin, a nucleoprotein (DNA coiled around histone proteins) found in cytoplasm found in a nucleus copies its chromosome and divides copies chromosomes, then the immediately afterwards cell grows, then goes through mitosis to organise chromosomes in two equal groups Human genome • • • • Human genome (in diploid cells) = 6 x 109 bp 6 x 109 bp X 0.34 nm/bp = 2.04 x 109 nm = 2 m/cell Very thin (2.0 nm), extremely fragile Diameter of nucleus = 5-10 mm • Most human cells are diploid and each cell contains a total of 2 m of DNA • 2 X 1014 cells = 2 X 1014 meter • Total DNA length of 2 X 1011 km Compare this with the circumference of the earth (4 X 104 km) or (1.5 X 108 km) the distance between the earth and the sun. DNA must be packaged to protect it, but must still be accessible to allow gene expression and cellular responsiveness, How ????? The major histone proteins Histone Mol. Wt H1 H2A H2B H3 H4 22,500 13,960 13,774 15,273 11,236 No. of Amino acid 244 129 125 135 102 Percentage Lys + Arg 30.8 20.2 22.4 22.9 24.5 The DNA double helix is bound to proteins called histones. The histones have positively charged (basic) amino acids to bind the negatively charged (acidic) DNA. Here is an SDS gel of histone proteins, separated by size In addition, chromatin contains an approximately equal mass of a wide variety of non-histone chromosomal proteins. There are more than a thousand different types of these proteins, which are involved in a range of activities, including DNA replication and gene expression. The DNA of prokaryotes is similarly associated with proteins, some of which presumably function as histones do, packing the DNA within the bacterial cell. 1st level 2nd level 3rd level Core DNA Packaging of the DNA in to chromosome has several important functions 1. This compact form fits to inside the cell. 2. It protect DNA from damage. 3. Only chromosomes can transmit efficiently to both daughter cells. 4. Chromosome give the organization to each DNA, this organization facilitates gene expression. Nucleosome core particle individual nucleosomes = “beads on a string” • Detailed analysis of these nucleosome core particles has shown that they contain 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped 1.75 times around a histone core consisting of two molecules each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 (the core histones). The Assembly of the Core Histones Notice the long tails of the octamer The bending of DNA in a nucleosome 1. Flexibility of DNAs: A-T riched minor groove inside and G-C riched groove outside 2. DNA bound protein can also help 30-nm fiber Flexible linker, DNA binding proteins Structural modulators: H1 histone, ATP-driven Chromatin remodeling machine, covalent modification of histone tails Function & location of Histone H1 It is essential for the second level of chromatin organization. The function of Histone tails Chromatin Remodeling Cyclic Diagram for nucleosome formation and disruption ATP Less tightly bound Covalent Modification of core histone tails Acetylation of lysines Mythylation of lysines Phosphorylation of serines Histone acetyl transferase (HAT) Histone deacetylase (HDAC)