Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Music Therapy 1987, Vol 6, No 2, 28-38 Songwriting as a Tool for Reading and Language Remediation THE KATE UNIVERSITY GFELLER OF IOWA Songwriting has been advocated as a toot to aid emotional expres sion and interaction. With changes in method and therapeutic focus, songwriting can also he beneficial for populations with reading and written language difficulties, including bilingual or academically disadvantaged students, the learning disabled, and the hearing im paired. This article discusses the integration of songwriting with the language experience approach (LEA), an integrated language pro gram advocated for many special populations. Included in the article is a rationale for the use of LEA, advantages to incorporating song writing with LEA, specified steps for LEA-based songwriting, clinical applications, and research findings concerning the language experience approach. Songwriting has been advocated in music therapy literature as a tool to aid emotional expression and social interaction. Ficken (1976) suggests its use in psychiatric settings, where songwriting may aid interaction and emotional expression, and encourage socially acceptable behavior in the group process. Plach (1980) recommends songwriting in group therapy to develop group cohesiveness or to share common problems. Schmidt (1983) suggests that the very process of creativity found in songwriting may con tribute to mental health. While Ortman (1984) recommends songwriting for a non-psychiatric population, the physically disabled, she advocates this technique for psychosocial objectives, specifically self-expression and developing self-mastery. Tapping the emotional and social aspects of songwriting is certainly a valid use of the process. This paper will suggest that songwriting can address additional treatment objectives. By changing the methodology and therapeutic focus in the songwriting experience, and by emphasizing the structural aspects of the lyrics, this process can be beneficial for per sons with difficulties in reading and written language. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the integration of song writing with the language experience approach (LEA). The article will focus on the following: 1, What is the language experience approach? 28 Songwriting for Reading and Language 2. What theoretical rationale supports its use? 3. Who benefits from the language experience approach? 4. Why is songwriting a valuable addition to the basic LEA method? 5. How is songwriting integrated into the language experience methodology? 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method? 7. What are the clinical applications and considerations for music therapy? THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH: DESCRIPTION AND RATIONALE The language experience approach to language arts is based on the assumption that children can learn to read by using natural language pat terns and vocabulary. Doris M. Lee and Roach Van Allen, pioneers in LEA, describe listening, speaking, reading, and writing as “different faces of the same understandings and skills” (1963, p. vi). This approach is based on the primacy of the oral/aural language system: language develop ment normally proceeds from listening to speaking, to reading, and finally to writing. The child’s spoken language acts as a basis for written language (a symbol for speech sounds) which in turn can be read (Dauzat & Dauzat. 1981). Rather than using standardized readingtexts, with a predetermined vocabulary sequence, in LEA the reading materials are written by the stu dents themselves. Stories for reading are based on discussions about indi vidual or group experiences which are, in turn, recorded in print. WHO BENEFITS FROM THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH? The language experience approach has been advocated by educators for a number of special populations who, too often, experience delays in reading and writing mastery. The most widespread use has been for reading readiness with beginning readers to help establish sound-symbol awareness (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). However, it has also been advocated for bilingual or minority groups and the academically disadvantaged (Spache & Spache, 1977), individuals with receptive language disorders (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981), and the hearing impaired (Stauffer, 1979; Gormley & Geoffrion, 1981; Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). Reid and Hresko (1981) note the language experience approach as one of the prominent and/or promising methods for the learning disabled with reading difficulties. An important feature of this approach is that the complexity of vocab ulary, semantic information, and even dialect is based on individual exper ience. LEA aids success and reduce’s the alienation inherent in the use of non-meaningful materials. This high level of individualization has benefits for illiterate adults as well as children, since the vocabulary used can reflect their own level of spoken language rather than a preestablished hierarchy of vocabulary as is used in traditional reading texts. INTEGRATING SONGWRITING AND THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH The use of music as an aid to language arts, including reading, is far from a new concept. Carsetti (1983) documents the successful use of music as a motivational factor in Project READ, a national literacy project for troubled youth. Carsetti highlights the diversity of musical style and the prominent role of music in the lives of young people. She adds that many songs employ rhyming, from which listening, reading, and writing skills can be developed. Eisenstein (1974) and Steele (1971) provide additional examples of music as a motivational factor in reading programs. In both of these studies, musical activity acts as a reward for improved reading among populations that are often considered appropriate for an LEA reading program. While these examples demonstrate music as a contingency after task completion, its ability to act as a reward might be incorporated into the actual reading process itself. The value of music as an academic motivator is certainly important, but it is not the only rationale for integrating songwriting with LEA. The content and structural components of the lyrics as well as melodic form can also contribute to the process. For example. Simon (1983) suggests that music can be used to introduce ideas, themes, or a discussion of forms, such as meter, rhythm, or free verse. In summary, a musical approach to LEA can provide motivation, diver sity, and novelty in teaching methods, which can contribute to heightened attention. These are worthwhile factors when working with people who have a history of academic disinterest and/or difficulty. Additionally, the lyrics and music can provide themes for discussion and a structural scheme for teaching language skills. USING AN LEA BASED SONGWRITING METHOD The language experience approach is a specific method for eliciting experience stories (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). With very minor adaptations or additions, the steps of the language experience can become the basis for a songwriting procedure. Modifying Dauzat and Dauzat’s recom mendations for using the language experience, the following steps should be employed: I. Initially, it is important to identify an experience or topic that can provide a basis for songwriting. Events in the participants’ lives can be discussed, such as a summer vacation, pets, or holidays. Particularly Songwriting for Reading and Language 31 meaningful are planned events attended by an entire group, such as a special field trip or concert. Equally meaningful, in the case of individuals with accompanying psycho-social needs, are the experiences surrounding important emotional issues and feelings. Another approach might be to cooperate with the classroom or specialeducation teacher, usingacademic content themes as the proposed topic. For example, the class may be studying plant growth. Following a planned experience of planting seeds or a field trip to a greenhouse, the group might discuss this experience as a topic for songwriting. Finally, the experience of listening to a pre-com posed song can suggest themes for discussion (Simon, 1983). The therapist can introduce songs that are particularly meaningful to group members and use the lyrics or mood of the music as a springboard for the next phase, group discussion. 2. During the second stage, clients discuss the experience or topic. In discussion, each participant should be encouraged to contribute ideas or opinions about the topic. Many benefits other than determining ideas for the song’s content can develop from sharing ideas. For example, the group might discuss the importance of friends. The ideas that emerge from this discussion can provide group members with helpful strategies on nurturing friendships. . 3. The therapist must establish purposefor the songwriting activity. Perhaps the song will be included in a special program. or the musical elements composed for the lyrics may provide opportunity to use newly developed musical skills. Eventually, a collection of songs might be made into a group song book. 4. The group creates the song. This can include development of both lyrics and music, or it can involve writing lyrics to a precomposed tune. A preconceived song can act as a structural framework to which the group or individual can write additional verses or new lyrics. This can be a useful method for groups with very limited musical skills. Initially, the participants share individual reactions, and the therapist helps them decide what will be written down. With the therapist’s assist ance, the participants should determine content, the phrases or sentences, their sequence, and the song title. The therapist records the song as the participants compose it. At this stage in the LEA approach, Dauzat and Dauzat caution against too much teacher direction or altering of the group’s language patterns, vocabulary, or grammar. Gormley and Geoffrion, on the other hand, recommend some modification of improper syntax in work with the hearing impaired. Song length and complexity will vary with the level ofmaturity of the group members’ spoken language and cognitive development. With very young children, the initial songs may be only a few short lines, with very simple “noun-verb-noun” structure. 5. After the song has been completed the therapist should read and then sing the song. Then the group is invited to read and sing it together. Individual reading practice is provided by having members of the group read alone and/or sing solos. 6. After this initial reading, clients must still practice the identifica- tion of words and sentences. This is accomplished by having the participants locate given sentences when read by the therapist. Segments of the song can be written onto individual strips and the group members can then reconstruct the song. This provides practice in sequencing of ideas as well as sentence identification. Specific sentences can be reviewed within the context of practicing the accompanying melodies or chord changes necessary for a smooth ensemble performance. 7. Unlike many reading approaches, where vocabulary development and word recognition order is predetermined, word skills in an LEA method must be developed by the teacheras new words appear in the song writing process. When appropriate, the therapist/teacher should highlight and emphasize new vocabulary. Phonemic patterns such as “at” in “bat” and “cat” can be pointed out; rhyming elements in songs can be a natural source for exploring “word chunks” or phonemes. Word meaning can be emphasized by having the group develop musical accompaniment which expresses the sense of a given word, much like text painting. For example, the word “frustration” might be accom panied by loud, repetitive percussive sound. This provides an opportunity for group members to explore the emotional content of the language they are using as they work with definition and recognition. 8. The group sings the song once again. allowing individual and small group participation to de/ermine individual mastery. 9. Students should practice the song periodically. The therapist must provide special opportunities to perform it (for peers, therapists, parents, or teachers). This provides motivation for vocabulary mastery and an opportunity for positive reinforcement. Rote memorization of the words must be discouraged until it is certain that the students have attained ade quate word recognition. 10. Extend reading and wiring skills through further practice. The group or individuals might wish to illustrate the song. With very young or verbally limited individuals, it may be helpful to have illustrations precede the initial topic discussion (Step 2). Later, additional verses might be added to the song. For example, having written a song about planting seeds, the next stages of plant growth might be developed in a new verse. In the case of a song written about an emotionally significant conflict, even tual resolution might beexpressed in subsequent verses. Vocabulary devel opment can be emphasized by editing more colorful, descriptive, or com plex words into the song. The effectiveness of the extension stage is vir tually limitless. The basic language experience steps should be completed over several days, with Steps 6 through 10 repeated on subsequent days for proper reinforcement.’ Because Ficken (1976), Ortman (1984), Plach (1980). and Schmidt (1983) provide extensive discussion of techniques for developing melody, harmony, and rhythm, this paper does not focus on selection and adapta tion of musical materials. The following examples will essentially focus on language development within the songwriting context. Two points must nevertheless be made concerning musical settings. Songwriting for Reading and Language 33 First, while songwriting sometimes focuses on the creative process as an end in itself, songwriting in conjunction with LEA has a different focus: language development. Therefore the music therapist may need to sacri fice more creative or complex melodies, rhythms, or forms ifthese obscure the syntactic and semantic clarity of the words. Second, there are no formulas for selecting melodies, harmonies, or rhythms. Rather, the music therapist must use good judgement in match ing these materials to cognitive and language development as well as cultural context. As an example, the clinical illustrations which follow highlight LEA with the hearing impaired. The obvious basis for language delay among the hearing impaired is their limited auditory input. This limitation should guidechoice of musical elements, such as choice of instruments, complexity of melody, and rhythm patterns. Because these children have better residual hearing in lower frequencies, the therapist should select low frequency instruments and relatively low tessitura. An additional concern is that of poor speech rhythm, so common to those with severe hearing loss. In order to foster more appropriate speech rhythm, the songs should be set to rhythm pat terns which approximate natural speech rhythm, as opposed to selectinga rhythm that is interesting or formally correct. Further, because phonemic sounds are often heard in an incomplete or distorted manner, the tradi tional rhyming often associated with songs may lack meaning to these children. Accuracy of vocal inflection would probably be a more appro priate objective than rhyming. Each of these adaptations is a reflection of the limitations and clinical needs associated with a serious hearing loss. Obviously, other issues should be considered in working with language problems of different etiological bases. An emotionally impaired adoles cent, for instance, may have poor language skills as a result of ongoing behavioral or attentional problems in school. In this instance. musical materials should be chosen which elicit attention through novelty or a style that is acceptable within the peer group. This might suggest the use of instruments and forms representative of the “top ten.” In short, the musical materials must be selected in view of the needs, interests, and musical abilities of individual clients. The following clinical illustrations, therefore, should not be viewed as a list of precise steps for using LEA-based songwriting. It serves instead as an example of one appli cation of this method in view of a particular handicapped population. In each case, the therapist must use sound clinical judgement to adapt the basic methodology in accordance with individual objectives, always maintaining a focus on the primary goal of language development. CLINICAL ILLUSTRATIONS LEA-based songwriting was used with nine hearing impaired students, ages 6 to 12, from a deaf education resource room. The resource room was in a public school which had a deaf education program for hearing-im paired children. The children were mainstreamed half days and then 34 Gfeller attended the resource room for language arts (reading, writing. spelling). Students were selected for music therapy on the recommendations of the deaf education staff. The range of average individual hearing loss was 47 dB to 103 dB. mild to profound loss. All subjects used total communication, with the exception of one student who was trained in oral communication. The students attended music therapy in pairs chosen for severity of hear ing loss as well as developmental level. Sessions were held weekly and included treatment goals of appropriate social skills, improved speech rhythm, reinforcement of academic concepts, and language development. LEA songwriting facilitated intervention in all goal areas. Example 1. In this example, LEA songwriting provided an opportunity to explore social skills while concomitantly working on language development. Since the resource room staff had reported difficulties in social skills among the upper elementary aged students, the topic of friendship, was selected for a songwriting session (Step I). (Step 2) Through speech and signing, the group discussed qualities that make a good friend and how to initiate friendship. The students gave examples from their own experiences, such as sharing toys or asking some one to play catch. These ideas were written on a large chart while the students watched. (Step 3) The therapist explained that the group would develop these ideas into a song that they could play, using guitar and per cussion skills that they had learned in previous sessions. This included playing simple tonic to dominant chord changes using either traditional or open tuning guitar techniques, depending on the students’ musical skills. (Step 4) The initial structure for the song was provided by displaying a pre-written refrain on a large chart: “What is a friend? What is a friend? Can you tell me, what is a friend?” This was sung and played to a simple tune composed by the therapist in the students’ voice range. The rhythm for the words was chosen to reflect natural speech rhythm as much as possible, since improved speech rhythm was another area of therapeutic concern. The verses to the song were created from discussion comments during Step 2. The group helped determine the sequence of ideas. and the therapist made a few modifications to correct syntax. In the case if the hearing impaired, modification of syntax may be necessary. since sign language may not always translate intocorrect sentence structure. In addi tion, the hearing impaired child may have such poor grasp of syntax that some modeling of appropriate structure is indicated (Gormley & Geoffrion, 1981). Because the hearing impaired tend to hear melodic information with less acuity than rhythmic information (Buechler, 1982), little emphasis was placed on melodic development. The therapist composed a simple tune to accompany the text (along with guitar chord recommendations) while the students, with therapist guidance, wrote rhythmic patterns above the text Songwriting for Reading and Language 35 (with quarter and eighth notes) which reflected natural speech rhythm. (Step 5) After the song was completed, the therapist read the song, pointing to the words while speaking, and then sang the song while the students signed. The group then spoke through the lyrics, clapping or playing percussion in the correct rhythm. The song was then sung to guitar and percussion accompaniment. (Steps 6 and 7) Difficult words or sentences were isolated and practiced. (Steps 8 and 9) In subsequent sessions, the song was sung again to encourage mastery of the words as well as musical skills. (Step IO) In addi tion to having difficulty with basic syntax, some hearing impaired children show impoverished or immature vocabulary or overly simple sentence structure. Therefore, following mastery of the original texts, the children were encouraged to explore more complex sentences, or to find synonyms for the vocabulary in the original form of the song. Because this songwriting exercise also focused on the therapeutic goal of developing social skills, additional activities were incorporated into ses sions following initial songwriting. For example, the group role-played social introductions and other conversational skills. The students identi fied difficulties they had in making friends, and suggestions for improve ment were discussed with the group. A host of other therapeutic approaches could be applied to this situation, with specific client’s needs dictating possible methods. Example 2. Songwriting can be used to reinforce academic concepts. Teachers from the Deaf Education Program stated that their students were studying a unit on news and mass media. They added that radio and television infor mation such as commercials, which rely heavily on audition (and are seldom captioned or signed) can seem incomprehensible to the children. The first step of LEA songwriting, therefore, grew out of an area of academic concern. (Step 2) The therapist brought examples of new sources and commercials to aid the initial discussion about mass media and its various forms. Facts covered in the resource room were raised in the discussion. Finally, the students’ ideas were written by the therapist on a large chart in plain view. (Step 3) Large newsprint models of empty newspapers were posted. These would become the vehicle for displaying the group’s news songs and commercials. (Step 4) Topics for story songs were selected, including a feature story song about recent Spring vacations. The group also brainstormed to “invent” new products which would be included in the advertisement section of the paper. Catchy commercial jingles were written by the group, and dramatized by the therapist and group members. A free prose style of writing was used for the new stories. Each sentence length was limited to fit within a normal musical period to facilitate rhythmic aspects of the story song. With therapist guidance, the students 36 Gfeller developed the correct rhythm patterns (in keeping with natural speech rhythms) while the therapist provided the simple melodic and harmonic components. Following the signing and singing of the songs in Step 5, the final product was transferred onto blank newsprint for future reference and for display in the resource room. Review of vocabulary and full mastery of sentence identification (Steps 6 through IO) followed in subsequent sessions. While the examples above show differences in treatment focus (social vs. academic skills), language development and reading skills are easily incorporated into both treatment sessions through the LEA songwriting method. In working with the hearing impaired, it is common to find students who lag several years in language skills. Flexibility is a real advan tage of the LEA approach; one can begin with language skills that match clients’ current level of development while still using age appropriate subject matter. In working with particularly young students, the skills level of song writing can be reduced by having the student fill in a blank or complete a closed-ended question, rather than develop a full sentence. For example, the therapist may sing, “Let’s sing hello to our friend Jimmy. His favorite toy is .” As the child’s language develops, the child may be asked to write an entire short sentence: “Jimmy likes trains.” The therapist must continue to work closely with the resource room staff to evaluate the appropriate level of language difficulty. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LEA As with any methodology, the language experience approach is not without limitations or criticisms. Because there is no developed teacher’s guide or vocabulary sequence, such a program requires more teacher/ therapist initiative and organization (Farr and Roser 1979). In addition, the teacher/therapist is responsible for providing adequate vocabulary repetition and diversity, in addition to individualized evaluation systems for documenting progress. Another complaint, the lack of exposure to reading materials outside the individual’s own cultural experience, can be remedied relatively easily by providing additional reading materials. Despite these potential shortcomings, Farr and Roser (1979) also note specific advantages to this approach. The self-developed material pro motes high interest and creativity, along with meaningful vocabulary and language. There is a close integration of listening, writing, speaking, and reading, with development proceeding at an individualized pace. In comparing LEA to more traditional reading approaches, research points out the following advantages: 1. The overall reading mastery of students using language experience is satisfactory if not greater than those taught by other methods (Stauffer & Hammond, 1967, 1969). Songwriting 37 for Reading and Language 2. There is equal or greater development of reading vocabulary (Hahn, 1967; Vilscek, Morgan, & Cleland, 1966). 3. LEA better facilitates written communication (including diversity of vocabulary, sentence length, mechanics of writing, and spelling) than does a basal reading program (Stauffer & Hammond, 1967, 1969). 4. Linguistically different students have adequate language back ground at the time of school entrance to cope with reading instruction (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). In conclusion, while no therapeutic or educational method can be con sidered appropriate for all individuals or situations, the language experience approach has some data-based advantages that make it a valuable aid in teaching reading and language skills. The ease with which music, through songwriting, can be included in LEA provides the therapist or educator with added diversity and motivation to use this method. CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE MUSIC THERAPIST Application of the LEA-based songwriting experience is most appro priate in a special education setting for students who are bilingual, academically disadvantaged, learning disabled, hearing impained, or in need of remedial reading. In any case, the decision to use this approach should be a cooperative decision made by the music therapist and special education staff, with careful ongoing communication of progress or problems. In addition to suggesting this method for special education settings, one should note the potential benefits for emotionally and behaviorally dis ordered individuals. It is not unusual for learning problems and emotional or behavioral disorders to co-exist (Reid & Hresko, 1981). Consider the effects of poor motivation, truancy problems, and the behavioral com ponents often associated with specific learning disabilities on academic success. These academic problems can have a further impact on the individual’s adjustment and success in the workplace or in future academic experiences. For the music therapist working with emotionally and behaviorally disordered children in a psychiatricsetting, or with culturally disadvantaged individuals in a community outreach program, the songwriting experience can provide an outlet for emotional expression. It can also develop or reinforce reading skills that can be critical to success in the job market or x-entry into the academic world. In summary, an LEA-based approach to songwriting is a viable method for developing reading and written language mastery with a variety of individuals whose knowledge and coping skills are limited by inadequate reading and language development. Gfeller 38 REFERENCES Buechler. J. (1982). Music therapy for handicapped children: Hearing Impaired. National Association for Music Therapy. Carsetti. J.K. (1983). Music to motivate reluctant readers. In J.E. Cowen (Ed.), Teaching (pp. 35-39). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. reading through the arts Dauzat, J. & Dauzat. S.V. (1981). Reading. the teacher and the learner. New York: John Wiley & Songs. Inc. Eisenstein, S.R. (1974). Effect of contingent guitar lessons on reading behavior. Journal of Music Therapy. II. 138-146. Farr, R.. & Roser, N. (1979). Teaching a child to read. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovano vich, Inc. Ficken. T. (1976). The use of songwriting in a psychiatric setting. Journal of Music Therapy, 13. 163-172. Gormley, K.A.. & Geoffrion, L.D. (1981). Another view of using language experience to teach reading to deaf and hearing impaired children. The Reading Teacher. 34, 519-525. Hahn, H.T. (1967). Three approaches to beginning reading instruction-ITA. language experience and basic readers--extended into second grade. Reading Teacher. 20, 711-715. Hall. M. (1976). Teaching reading as a language experience (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Lee, D.M. & Allen, R. Van (1963). Learning to read through experience (2nd ed.). NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Ortman, C.H. (1984). Song writing as therapy: The purpose, the process. the possibilities. Quarternotes, 12(3). 6-7. Plach. T. (1980). The creative use of music in group therapy. Springfield. IL: Charles C. Thomas. Reid, K.D.. & Hresko. W.P. (1981). A cognitive approach to learning disabilities. NY: McGraw-Hill. Schmidt, J.A. (1983). Song writing as a therapeutic procedure. Music Therapy Perspectives. 1(2). 4-7. Simon. S. (1983). Using music as a teaching tool. In J.E. Cowan (Ed.). Teaching reading (pp. 40-45). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Spache, G.D.. & Spache, E.B. (1977). Reading in the elementary school (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Stauffer. R.G. (1979). The language experience approach to reading instruction for deaf and hearing impaired children. The Reading Teacher, 33, 21-24. Stauffer, R.G. & Hammond, W.D. (1967). The effectiveness of language arts and basic reader approaches to first grade reading instruction-extended into second grade. Reading through the arts Teacher. 20. 740-746. Stauffer, R.G. & Hammond. W.D. (1969). The effectiveness of language arts and basic reader approaches to first grade reading instruction-extended into third grade. Reading Research Quarterly. 4. 469-499. Steele, A.L. (1971). Contingent socio-music listening periods in a preschool setting. Journal of Music Therapy, 8. 132-145. Vilseek. E.. Morgan. L. & Cleland. D. (1966). Coordinating and integrating language arts instruction in the first grade. Reading Teacher. 20, 31-37. Kate Gfeller, Ph.D., RMT-BC, is Director University of Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. of the Music Therapy Program at The