Download Songwriting as a Tool for Reading and Language Remediation

Music Therapy
1987, Vol 6, No 2, 28-38
Songwriting as a Tool for
Reading and Language Remediation
THE
KATE
UNIVERSITY
GFELLER
OF IOWA
Songwriting has been advocated as a toot to aid emotional expres­
sion and interaction. With changes in method and therapeutic focus,
songwriting can also he beneficial for populations with reading and
written language difficulties, including bilingual or academically
disadvantaged students, the learning disabled, and the hearing im­
paired. This article discusses the integration of songwriting with the
language experience approach (LEA), an integrated language pro­
gram advocated for many special populations. Included in the article
is a rationale for the use of LEA, advantages to incorporating song­
writing with LEA, specified steps for LEA-based songwriting,
clinical applications, and research findings concerning the language
experience approach.
Songwriting has been advocated in music therapy literature as a tool to
aid emotional expression and social interaction. Ficken (1976) suggests its
use in psychiatric settings, where songwriting may aid interaction and
emotional expression, and encourage socially acceptable behavior in the
group process. Plach (1980) recommends songwriting in group therapy to
develop group cohesiveness or to share common problems. Schmidt (1983)
suggests that the very process of creativity found in songwriting may con­
tribute to mental health. While Ortman (1984) recommends songwriting
for a non-psychiatric population, the physically disabled, she advocates
this technique for psychosocial objectives, specifically self-expression and
developing self-mastery.
Tapping the emotional and social aspects of songwriting is certainly a
valid use of the process. This paper will suggest that songwriting can
address additional treatment objectives. By changing the methodology
and therapeutic focus in the songwriting experience, and by emphasizing
the structural aspects of the lyrics, this process can be beneficial for per­
sons with difficulties in reading and written language.
The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the integration of song­
writing with the language experience approach (LEA). The article will
focus on the following:
1, What is the language experience approach?
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Songwriting
for Reading and Language
2. What theoretical rationale supports its use?
3. Who benefits from the language experience approach?
4. Why is songwriting a valuable addition to the basic LEA method?
5. How is songwriting integrated into the language experience
methodology?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method?
7. What are the clinical applications and considerations for music
therapy?
THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE
APPROACH:
DESCRIPTION
AND RATIONALE
The language experience approach to language arts is based on the
assumption that children can learn to read by using natural language pat­
terns and vocabulary. Doris M. Lee and Roach Van Allen, pioneers in
LEA, describe listening, speaking, reading, and writing as “different faces
of the same understandings and skills” (1963, p. vi). This approach is based
on the primacy of the oral/aural language system: language develop­
ment normally proceeds from listening to speaking, to reading, and finally
to writing.
The child’s spoken language acts as a basis for written language (a
symbol for speech sounds) which in turn can be read (Dauzat & Dauzat.
1981). Rather than using standardized readingtexts, with a predetermined
vocabulary sequence, in LEA the reading materials are written by the stu­
dents themselves. Stories for reading are based on discussions about indi­
vidual or group experiences which are, in turn, recorded in print.
WHO BENEFITS FROM THE LANGUAGE
EXPERIENCE
APPROACH?
The language experience approach has been advocated by educators for
a number of special populations who, too often, experience delays in
reading and writing mastery. The most widespread use has been for
reading readiness with beginning readers to help establish sound-symbol
awareness (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). However, it has also been advocated
for bilingual or minority groups and the academically disadvantaged
(Spache & Spache, 1977), individuals with receptive language disorders
(Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981), and the hearing impaired (Stauffer, 1979;
Gormley & Geoffrion, 1981; Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). Reid and Hresko
(1981) note the language experience approach as one of the prominent
and/or promising methods for the learning disabled with reading
difficulties.
An important feature of this approach is that the complexity of vocab­
ulary, semantic information, and even dialect is based on individual exper­
ience. LEA aids success and reduce’s the alienation inherent in the use of
non-meaningful materials. This high level of individualization
has benefits
for illiterate adults as well as children, since the vocabulary used can reflect
their own level of spoken language rather than a preestablished hierarchy
of vocabulary as is used in traditional reading texts.
INTEGRATING
SONGWRITING
AND THE LANGUAGE
EXPERIENCE
APPROACH
The use of music as an aid to language arts, including reading, is far from
a new concept. Carsetti (1983) documents the successful use of music as a
motivational factor in Project READ, a national literacy project for
troubled youth. Carsetti highlights the diversity of musical style and the
prominent role of music in the lives of young people. She adds that many
songs employ rhyming, from which listening, reading, and writing skills
can be developed.
Eisenstein (1974) and Steele (1971) provide additional examples of
music as a motivational factor in reading programs. In both of these
studies, musical activity acts as a reward for improved reading among
populations that are often considered appropriate for an LEA reading
program. While these examples demonstrate music as a contingency after
task completion, its ability to act as a reward might be incorporated into
the actual reading process itself.
The value of music as an academic motivator is certainly important, but
it is not the only rationale for integrating songwriting with LEA. The
content and structural components of the lyrics as well as melodic form can
also contribute to the process. For example. Simon (1983) suggests that
music can be used to introduce ideas, themes, or a discussion of forms,
such as meter, rhythm, or free verse.
In summary, a musical approach to LEA can provide motivation, diver­
sity, and novelty in teaching methods, which can contribute to heightened
attention. These are worthwhile factors when working with people who
have a history of academic disinterest and/or difficulty. Additionally, the
lyrics and music can provide themes for discussion and a structural scheme
for teaching language skills.
USING AN LEA BASED SONGWRITING
METHOD
The language experience approach is a specific method for eliciting
experience stories (Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981). With very minor adaptations
or additions, the steps of the language experience can become the basis for
a songwriting
procedure. Modifying
Dauzat and Dauzat’s recom­
mendations for using the language experience, the following steps should
be employed:
I. Initially, it is important to identify an experience or topic that can
provide a basis for songwriting. Events in the participants’ lives can be
discussed, such as a summer vacation, pets, or holidays. Particularly
Songwriting
for Reading and Language
31
meaningful are planned events attended by an entire group, such as a
special field trip or concert. Equally meaningful, in the case of individuals
with accompanying psycho-social needs, are the experiences surrounding
important emotional issues and feelings. Another approach might be to
cooperate with the classroom or specialeducation teacher, usingacademic
content themes as the proposed topic. For example, the class may be
studying plant growth. Following a planned experience of planting seeds
or a field trip to a greenhouse, the group might discuss this experience as a
topic for songwriting. Finally, the experience of listening to a pre-com­
posed song can suggest themes for discussion (Simon, 1983). The therapist
can introduce songs that are particularly meaningful to group members
and use the lyrics or mood of the music as a springboard for the next phase,
group discussion.
2. During the second stage, clients discuss the experience or topic. In
discussion, each participant should be encouraged to contribute ideas or
opinions about the topic. Many benefits other than determining ideas for
the song’s content can develop from sharing ideas. For example, the group
might discuss the importance of friends. The ideas that emerge from this
discussion can provide group members with helpful strategies on nurturing
friendships.
.
3. The therapist must establish purposefor the songwriting activity.
Perhaps the song will be included in a special program. or the musical
elements composed for the lyrics may provide opportunity to use newly
developed musical skills. Eventually, a collection of songs might be made
into a group song book.
4. The group creates the song. This can include development of both
lyrics and music, or it can involve writing lyrics to a precomposed tune. A
preconceived song can act as a structural framework to which the group or
individual can write additional verses or new lyrics. This can be a useful
method for groups with very limited musical skills.
Initially, the participants share individual reactions, and the therapist
helps them decide what will be written down. With the therapist’s assist­
ance, the participants should determine content, the phrases or sentences,
their sequence, and the song title. The therapist records the song as the
participants compose it. At this stage in the LEA approach, Dauzat and
Dauzat caution against too much teacher direction or altering of the
group’s language patterns, vocabulary, or grammar. Gormley and
Geoffrion, on the other hand, recommend some modification of improper
syntax in work with the hearing impaired. Song length and complexity will
vary with the level ofmaturity of the group members’ spoken language and
cognitive development. With very young children, the initial songs may be
only a few short lines, with very simple “noun-verb-noun”
structure.
5. After the song has been completed the therapist should read and
then sing the song. Then the group is invited to read and sing it together.
Individual reading practice is provided by having members of the group
read alone and/or sing solos.
6. After this initial reading, clients must still practice the identifica-
tion of words and sentences. This is accomplished by having the
participants locate given sentences when read by the therapist. Segments of
the song can be written onto individual strips and the group members can
then reconstruct the song. This provides practice in sequencing of ideas as
well as sentence identification. Specific sentences can be reviewed within
the context of practicing the accompanying melodies or chord changes
necessary for a smooth ensemble performance.
7. Unlike many reading approaches, where vocabulary development
and word recognition order is predetermined, word skills in an LEA
method must be developed by the teacheras new words appear in the song­
writing process. When appropriate, the therapist/teacher should highlight
and emphasize new vocabulary. Phonemic patterns such as “at” in “bat”
and “cat” can be pointed out; rhyming elements in songs can be a natural
source for exploring “word chunks” or phonemes.
Word meaning can be emphasized by having the group develop
musical accompaniment which expresses the sense of a given word, much
like text painting. For example, the word “frustration” might be accom­
panied by loud, repetitive percussive sound. This provides an opportunity
for group members to explore the emotional content of the language they
are using as they work with definition and recognition.
8. The group sings the song once again. allowing individual and small
group participation to de/ermine individual mastery.
9. Students should practice the song periodically. The therapist must
provide special opportunities to perform it (for peers, therapists, parents,
or teachers). This provides motivation for vocabulary mastery and an
opportunity for positive reinforcement. Rote memorization of the words
must be discouraged until it is certain that the students have attained ade­
quate word recognition.
10. Extend reading and wiring skills through further practice. The
group or individuals might wish to illustrate the song. With very young or
verbally limited individuals, it may be helpful to have illustrations precede
the initial topic discussion (Step 2). Later, additional verses might be
added to the song. For example, having written a song about planting
seeds, the next stages of plant growth might be developed in a new verse. In
the case of a song written about an emotionally significant conflict, even­
tual resolution might beexpressed in subsequent verses. Vocabulary devel­
opment can be emphasized by editing more colorful, descriptive, or com­
plex words into the song. The effectiveness of the extension stage is vir­
tually limitless. The basic language experience steps should be completed
over several days, with Steps 6 through 10 repeated on subsequent days for
proper reinforcement.’
Because Ficken (1976), Ortman (1984), Plach (1980). and Schmidt
(1983) provide extensive discussion of techniques for developing melody,
harmony, and rhythm, this paper does not focus on selection and adapta­
tion of musical materials. The following examples will essentially focus on
language development within the songwriting context.
Two points must nevertheless be made concerning musical settings.
Songwriting
for Reading and Language
33
First, while songwriting sometimes focuses on the creative process as an
end in itself, songwriting in conjunction with LEA has a different focus:
language development. Therefore the music therapist may need to sacri­
fice more creative or complex melodies, rhythms, or forms ifthese obscure
the syntactic and semantic clarity of the words.
Second, there are no formulas for selecting melodies, harmonies, or
rhythms. Rather, the music therapist must use good judgement in match­
ing these materials to cognitive and language development as well as
cultural context. As an example, the clinical illustrations which follow
highlight LEA with the hearing impaired.
The obvious basis for language delay among the hearing impaired is
their limited auditory input. This limitation should guidechoice of musical
elements, such as choice of instruments, complexity of melody, and
rhythm patterns. Because these children have better residual hearing in
lower frequencies, the therapist should select low frequency instruments
and relatively low tessitura. An additional concern is that of poor speech
rhythm, so common to those with severe hearing loss. In order to foster
more appropriate speech rhythm, the songs should be set to rhythm pat­
terns which approximate natural speech rhythm, as opposed to selectinga
rhythm that is interesting or formally correct. Further, because phonemic
sounds are often heard in an incomplete or distorted manner, the tradi­
tional rhyming often associated with songs may lack meaning to these
children. Accuracy of vocal inflection would probably be a more appro­
priate objective than rhyming. Each of these adaptations is a reflection of
the limitations and clinical needs associated with a serious hearing loss.
Obviously, other issues should be considered in working with language
problems of different etiological bases. An emotionally impaired adoles­
cent, for instance, may have poor language skills as a result of ongoing
behavioral or attentional problems in school. In this instance. musical
materials should be chosen which elicit attention through novelty or a style
that is acceptable within the peer group. This might suggest the use of
instruments and forms representative of the “top ten.”
In short, the musical materials must be selected in view of the needs,
interests, and musical abilities of individual clients. The following clinical
illustrations, therefore, should not be viewed as a list of precise steps for
using LEA-based songwriting. It serves instead as an example of one appli­
cation of this method in view of a particular handicapped population. In
each case, the therapist must use sound clinical judgement to adapt the
basic methodology in accordance with individual objectives, always
maintaining a focus on the primary goal of language development.
CLINICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
LEA-based songwriting was used with nine hearing impaired students,
ages 6 to 12, from a deaf education resource room. The resource room was
in a public school which had a deaf education program for hearing-im­
paired children. The children were mainstreamed half days and then
34
Gfeller
attended the resource room for language arts (reading, writing. spelling).
Students were selected for music therapy on the recommendations of the
deaf education staff. The range of average individual hearing loss was
47 dB to 103 dB. mild to profound loss. All subjects used total
communication, with the exception of one student who was trained in oral
communication.
The students attended music therapy in pairs chosen for severity of hear­
ing loss as well as developmental level. Sessions were held weekly and
included treatment goals of appropriate social skills, improved speech
rhythm, reinforcement of academic concepts, and language development.
LEA songwriting facilitated intervention in all goal areas.
Example 1.
In this example, LEA songwriting provided an opportunity to explore
social skills while concomitantly working on language development. Since
the resource room staff had reported difficulties in social skills among the
upper elementary aged students, the topic of friendship, was selected for a
songwriting session (Step I).
(Step 2) Through speech and signing, the group discussed qualities that
make a good friend and how to initiate friendship. The students gave
examples from their own experiences, such as sharing toys or asking some­
one to play catch. These ideas were written on a large chart while the
students watched. (Step 3) The therapist explained that the group would
develop these ideas into a song that they could play, using guitar and per­
cussion skills that they had learned in previous sessions. This included
playing simple tonic to dominant chord changes using either traditional or
open tuning guitar techniques, depending on the students’ musical skills.
(Step 4) The initial structure for the song was provided by displaying a
pre-written refrain on a large chart: “What is a friend? What is a friend?
Can you tell me, what is a friend?” This was sung and played to a simple
tune composed by the therapist in the students’ voice range. The rhythm
for the words was chosen to reflect natural speech rhythm as much as
possible, since improved speech rhythm was another area of therapeutic
concern.
The verses to the song were created from discussion comments during
Step 2. The group helped determine the sequence of ideas. and the
therapist made a few modifications to correct syntax. In the case if the
hearing impaired, modification of syntax may be necessary. since sign
language may not always translate intocorrect sentence structure. In addi­
tion, the hearing impaired child may have such poor grasp of syntax that
some modeling of appropriate structure is indicated (Gormley &
Geoffrion, 1981).
Because the hearing impaired tend to hear melodic information with less
acuity than rhythmic information (Buechler, 1982), little emphasis was
placed on melodic development. The therapist composed a simple tune to
accompany the text (along with guitar chord recommendations) while the
students, with therapist guidance, wrote rhythmic patterns above the text
Songwriting
for Reading and Language
35
(with quarter and eighth notes) which reflected natural speech rhythm.
(Step 5) After the song was completed, the therapist read the song,
pointing to the words while speaking, and then sang the song while the
students signed. The group then spoke through the lyrics, clapping or
playing percussion in the correct rhythm. The song was then sung to guitar
and percussion accompaniment.
(Steps 6 and 7) Difficult words or sentences were isolated and practiced.
(Steps 8 and 9) In subsequent sessions, the song was sung again to
encourage mastery of the words as well as musical skills. (Step IO) In addi­
tion to having difficulty with basic syntax, some hearing impaired children
show impoverished or immature vocabulary or overly simple sentence
structure. Therefore, following mastery of the original texts, the children
were encouraged to explore more complex sentences, or to find synonyms
for the vocabulary in the original form of the song.
Because this songwriting exercise also focused on the therapeutic goal of
developing social skills, additional activities were incorporated into ses­
sions following initial songwriting. For example, the group role-played
social introductions and other conversational skills. The students identi­
fied difficulties they had in making friends, and suggestions for improve­
ment were discussed with the group. A host of other therapeutic
approaches could be applied to this situation, with specific client’s needs
dictating possible methods.
Example 2.
Songwriting can be used to reinforce academic concepts. Teachers from
the Deaf Education Program stated that their students were studying a
unit on news and mass media. They added that radio and television infor­
mation such as commercials, which rely heavily on audition (and are
seldom captioned or signed) can seem incomprehensible to the children.
The first step of LEA songwriting, therefore, grew out of an area of
academic concern. (Step 2) The therapist brought examples of new
sources and commercials to aid the initial discussion about mass media
and its various forms. Facts covered in the resource room were raised in the
discussion. Finally, the students’ ideas were written by the therapist on a
large chart in plain view.
(Step 3) Large newsprint models of empty newspapers were posted.
These would become the vehicle for displaying the group’s news songs and
commercials.
(Step 4) Topics for story songs were selected, including a feature story
song about recent Spring vacations. The group also brainstormed to
“invent” new products which would be included in the advertisement
section of the paper. Catchy commercial jingles were written by the group,
and dramatized by the therapist and group members.
A free prose style of writing was used for the new stories. Each sentence
length was limited to fit within a normal musical period to facilitate
rhythmic aspects of the story song. With therapist guidance, the students
36
Gfeller
developed the correct rhythm patterns (in keeping with natural speech
rhythms) while the therapist provided the simple melodic and harmonic
components.
Following the signing and singing of the songs in Step 5, the final
product was transferred onto blank newsprint for future reference and for
display in the resource room. Review of vocabulary and full mastery of
sentence identification
(Steps 6 through IO) followed in subsequent
sessions.
While the examples above show differences in treatment focus (social vs.
academic skills), language development and reading skills are easily
incorporated into both treatment sessions through the LEA songwriting
method. In working with the hearing impaired, it is common to find
students who lag several years in language skills. Flexibility is a real advan­
tage of the LEA approach; one can begin with language skills that match
clients’ current level of development while still using age appropriate
subject matter.
In working with particularly young students, the skills level of song­
writing can be reduced by having the student fill in a blank or complete a
closed-ended question, rather than develop a full sentence. For example,
the therapist may sing, “Let’s sing hello to our friend Jimmy. His favorite
toy is .” As the child’s language develops, the child may be asked to
write an entire short sentence: “Jimmy likes trains.” The therapist must
continue to work closely with the resource room staff to evaluate the
appropriate level of language difficulty.
ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES
OF LEA
As with any methodology, the language experience approach is not
without limitations or criticisms. Because there is no developed teacher’s
guide or vocabulary sequence, such a program requires more teacher/
therapist initiative and organization (Farr and Roser 1979). In addition,
the teacher/therapist
is responsible for providing adequate vocabulary
repetition and diversity, in addition to individualized evaluation systems
for documenting progress. Another complaint, the lack of exposure to
reading materials outside the individual’s own cultural experience, can be
remedied relatively easily by providing additional reading materials.
Despite these potential shortcomings, Farr and Roser (1979) also note
specific advantages to this approach. The self-developed material pro­
motes high interest and creativity, along with meaningful vocabulary and
language. There is a close integration of listening, writing, speaking, and
reading, with development proceeding at an individualized pace.
In comparing LEA to more traditional reading approaches, research
points out the following advantages:
1. The overall reading mastery of students using language experience
is satisfactory if not greater than those taught by other methods (Stauffer
& Hammond, 1967, 1969).
Songwriting
37
for Reading and Language
2. There is equal or greater development of reading vocabulary
(Hahn, 1967; Vilscek, Morgan, & Cleland, 1966).
3. LEA better facilitates written communication (including diversity
of vocabulary, sentence length, mechanics of writing, and spelling) than
does a basal reading program (Stauffer & Hammond, 1967, 1969).
4. Linguistically
different students have adequate language back­
ground at the time of school entrance to cope with reading instruction
(Dauzat & Dauzat, 1981).
In conclusion, while no therapeutic or educational method can be con­
sidered appropriate for all individuals or situations, the language
experience approach has some data-based advantages that make it a
valuable aid in teaching reading and language skills. The ease with which
music, through songwriting, can be included in LEA provides the therapist
or educator with added diversity and motivation to use this method.
CLINICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
FOR THE MUSIC
THERAPIST
Application of the LEA-based songwriting experience is most appro­
priate in a special education setting for students who are bilingual,
academically disadvantaged, learning disabled, hearing impained, or in
need of remedial reading. In any case, the decision to use this approach
should be a cooperative decision made by the music therapist and special
education staff, with careful ongoing communication
of progress or
problems.
In addition to suggesting this method for special education settings, one
should note the potential benefits for emotionally and behaviorally dis­
ordered individuals. It is not unusual for learning problems and emotional
or behavioral disorders to co-exist (Reid & Hresko, 1981). Consider the
effects of poor motivation, truancy problems, and the behavioral com­
ponents often associated with specific learning disabilities on academic
success. These academic problems can have a further impact on the
individual’s adjustment and success in the workplace or in future academic
experiences. For the music therapist working with emotionally and
behaviorally disordered children in a psychiatricsetting, or with culturally
disadvantaged individuals
in a community
outreach program, the
songwriting experience can provide an outlet for emotional expression. It
can also develop or reinforce reading skills that can be critical to success in
the job market or x-entry into the academic world.
In summary, an LEA-based approach to songwriting is a viable method
for developing reading and written language mastery with a variety of
individuals whose knowledge and coping skills are limited by inadequate
reading and language development.
Gfeller
38
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(pp. 35-39). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Wiley & Songs. Inc.
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Kate Gfeller, Ph.D., RMT-BC,
is Director
University of Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa.
of the Music Therapy
Program
at The