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THE NOUN 1. Common noun, 2. Proper noun, 3.Collective noun, 4.Abstract noun, 5.Material noun Definition : A noun is a word. It is used as the name of a person, animal, place, bird, idea, emotion or thing. For example boy, girl, table, chair, peacock, honesty, happiness, wisdom, book etc., e.g. Person David, Sister, Woman, Brother Place Chennai, London, Delhi, Maxico Animal Tiger, Elephant, Lion, Deer Bird Parrot, Crow, Swan, Peacock Emotion Happiness, Sadness, Thought, Toy Thing Pen, Book, Computer, Pencil Types of nouns NOUNS ARE NAMING words. They identify people, things or place in our world. Nouns come in six different forms: proper, common, abstract, concrete, collective, and compound. Further, the nouns can be classified into two major types as : countable and uncountable nouns. 1. Common noun: Definition: A common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class of kind. These common nouns are words for things. e.g. chair bicycle television hammer ladder computer axe calculator cooker saw crayons book courage ruler printer laziness lawnmower dictionary These common nouns are words for animals. e.g. cat kitten lion dog puppy tiger horse foal elephant goat kid whale frog tadpole kangaroo sheep lamb bear These common nouns are words for places. e.g. airport hostel temple university hotel mosque stadium bank school park library college farm theater post office zoo mall police station These common nouns are words for people who do certain things. e.g. artist teacher police officer singer headmaster plumber dancer manager driver director doctor writer magician lawyer farmer artist clerk friend 2. Proper noun : Definition : A proper noun is the name of some particular person, place, thing, particular event, or group. This proper noun begins with a capital letter. If the noun is nonspecific, that is, the noun refers to a general idea and not a specific person, place, or thing, it is usually not a proper noun, so it is not capitalized. e.g. Specific Nonspecific World war II A war English class A class These people’s names are proper nouns. e.g. Aladdin Muhammad Ali Dad Harry Potter George Washington Mom The names of the days of the week and the months of the year are proper nouns. e.g. days of the week months Sunday January August Monday February September Tuesday March October Wednesday April November Thursday May December Friday June Saturday July The names of special days and celebrations are also proper nouns. e.g. New Year’s Day Valentine’s Day Independence Day Labor Day The names of famous places, buildings and monuments are proper nouns. e.g. The Eiffel Tower The Golden Gate Bridge The names of people who live in a particular country are also proper nouns. e.g. Country People Afghanistan Afghans Australia Australians Britain The British Germany Germans USA Americans India Indians 3. Collective noun : Definition : i) A collective noun is a name of a number (collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole as: Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee. ii) Nouns that refer to a specific group of persons or things are ca lled Collective Nouns. These are nouns for groups of people. Here are some collective nouns for groups of people. e.g. a family a committee a community a company a band a gang an audience   the army Many collective nouns can be used with a singular or plural verb. e.g. The crowd was orderly. The people were clapping, yelling and cheering. Here are more collective nouns we can use for groups of people. e.g. A crowd of people An army of soldiers a panel of judges A team of players a class of schoolchildren a company of actors a gang of thieves a band of musicians Many groups of animals have their own special collective nouns. e.g. a brood of chickens a litter of puppies a school of fish a flock of birds a pack of wolves a swarm of bees Some groups of things also have their own special collective nouns. e.g. a bunch of bananas a deck of cards a fleet of vehicles a bunch of flower a cluster of grapes a suite of rooms Some nouns name the amount or form of something. e.g. a loaf of a bar of a bar of chocolate bread soap The words a piece of mean a single serving or part of something. e.g. a slice/piece of bread a slice/piece of cheese a sheet/piece of paper 4. Abstract noun : Definition : An abstract noun is usually the name of a feelings, ideas, action, state and characteristics, or qualities considered apart from the object to which it belongs as. Most abstract nouns end with these suffixes: e.g. -ism -ment -ity nationalism argument personality -tion -ship -ence aggravation friendship silence This abstract noun cannot be seen, heard, touched or tasted but it can only be felt by our sense. The abstract noun is not visible. e.g. Quality goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, honesty, wisdom, bravery Action quarreling, jog, laughter, theft, movement, hatred State poverty, childhood, boyhood, manhood, youth, slavery, sleep, death For example, we cannot be 'happiness' but we can feel that in our heart or mind. The names of the subject of study (e.g. grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract Nouns. (i) Concrete nouns : in opposite to abstract noun, the concrete nouns can be seen or touched by us. e.g. building iron steel gold (ii) Countable nouns : (countables) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count. And they have their own singular and plural forms. e.g. book apple doctor horse books apples doctors horses (iii) Uncountable nouns : (uncountable) are the names of things which we cannot count, e.g. milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. The uncountable nouns generally refer to e.g. drinks coffee, tea materials wood, glass, gold, silver liquids milk, oil, petrol games cricket, tennis, football gases air, oxygen Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. Even the abstract nouns are also uncountable nouns. For example, we say boys but we cannot say oils. 5. Material noun : Definition : There are the raw elements or objects existing in nature. e.g. Iron Gold Stones Brass Aluminum Mercury Plastic Mat THE ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR Definition: Adjectives are words qualifying nouns or describing words. They qualify or describe nouns. They are called noun-helper. Adjectives are a large class of words (for example, good, bad, new, accurate, careful) which define more precisely the reference of a noun or pronoun. An adjective gives more distinct meaning to a noun or a pronoun by describing or limiting it. All adjectives answer three specific questions about the nouns or pronouns they are modifying: e.g. What kind? strong, cheerful, red Which one(s) this, that, these, those How many? few, some, three, several Adjectives That Follow Verbs Pay special attention to adjectives that follow verbs. Sometimes, the adjective follows a verb, but it describes a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb. e.g. These strawberries taste sour. The pickles are salty Adjectives are used either attributively or predicatively. The boy is clever The problem is easy Adjectives have many different endings. Many adjectives are created simply by adding certain suffixes to words that were previously nouns or verbs. Some adjectives end in -ful. These adjectives describe noun or pronouns that are full of something or have a lot of something. a joyful smile a beautiful face a careful student a cheerful baby a powerful machine a wonderful time colorful clothes a useful book a skillful player Some adjectives end in -ous. a mountainous area a famous writer a poisonous a humorous a dangerous job a generous gift snake film Some adjectives end in -y. a sunny day a noisy car dirty hands an easy test a cloudy sky stormy weather Some adjectives end in -less. These adjectives describe a person or thing that does not have something. a meaningless word a sleeveless dress a fearless fighter a careless driver a cloudless sky seedless grapes Some adjectives end in -al. actual Final general mental Physical special Here are some adjectives that end in -ic, -ish, -ible, -able, -ive and -ly. enthusiastic shouting comfortable clothes expensive jewelry a selfish act a likeable child friendly teachers a fantastic singer visible footprints an imaginative story Many adjectives end in -ing. a smiling face an outstanding swimmer chattering monkeys loving parents a disappointing result a caring nurse Many adjectives end in -ed. boiled eggs satisfied customers wasted time excited students reduced prices invited guests Many adjectives end in -ar. Familiar particular Regular similar COMPOUND WORDS Definition : popular Forming Compound Words : A compound is a unit consisting of two or more base words. Compound words are, for the most part, nouns, adjectives and verbs. There are different types of compound words in English. SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (NOUN + VERB) Noun and Verb List e.g. Noun Verb Compound Word snow drop snow drop air dash air dash tongue slip tongue slip book mark book mark time line timeline monthly pay Monthly pay sun set sunset lay break Lay break tooth ache toothache head line headline ear mark earmark brow beat browbeat type write typewrite back bite backbite way lay waylay telephone call telephone call SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (NOUN + GERUND) Noun and Gerund List e.g. Noun Gerund Compound Word cat walking cat walking air blowing air blowing white washing white washing time consuming time consuming account checking account checking time serving time serving ear piercing ear piercing heart rending heart rending English training English training book binding book-binding day dreaming day dreaming bread baking bread baking account checking account checking SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (GERUND + NOUN) Gerund and Noun List e.g. Gerund Noun Compound Word sleeping room Sleeping-room sitting bench Sitting-bench resting room Resting-room SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (NOUN + NOUN) Noun and Noun List e.g. Noun Noun Compound Word tax payer taxpayer head teacher Head-teacher money market Money-market time table timetable SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (NOUN + ADJECTIVE) Noun and Adjective List e.g. Noun Adjective Compound Word force full forceful care full careful SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND WORDS USING (PREPOSITION + NOUN) Preposition and Noun List e.g. Preposition Noun Compound Word over bridge Over-bridge in box inbox off day Off-day by line by line under class underclass out law outlaw fore thought forethought fore sight foresight over coat overcoat off spring offspring after noon afternoon OTHER COMPOUND WORDS e.g. good (adj) + for (prep) good for nothing + anything (n) fall (adj) + from (prep) + grace (n) fall from grace dance (adj) + upon (prep) + nothing (n) dance upon nothing experience (v) + of (prep) + meeting (n) experience of meeting food (n) + for (prep) + thought (n) food for thought short (adj) + range (verb) Short range lang (adj) + awaited (v) Long awaited well (adj) + kept (v) well kept Compound Word Using in Sentences : Even a straight walking stick has a crooked end As the family lost the sole bread winner, they were shocked The water table in Amazon river basin has gone down The time table for the examination will be announced next week The new boss overhauled the existing pattern of work I over-heard some abusive remarks but ignored them You can overcome any challenge in life if you have hope The earth quake shook the whole of Asia My school is at a stone’s throw from my home I hate blood shed even for a holy sacrifice Food ball lovers often end up in violence There are many flower plants in my kitchen garden Tape recorders have become obsolete after the advent of DVD players Black boards still dominate class room teaching in India Gandhi’s birth place has become a holy spot now. A woman is a gateway of souls Eye sight is God’s gift to us Drive slowly since your car has air brake Eve teasing is an offence Don’t be a devil behind the steering wheel Education is every one’s birth right in England THE PARTICIPLE Definition: The participle has two forms: present participle, and past participle. Present participle is one of the three forms of non-finite verbs. It is formed by adding “ing” with a verb. Past participle is one of the nonfinite verb forms. Its uses (a) When one subject does 2 actions The first action -> participle The second action -> verb e.g. He ran fast (1st action). He sweated (2nd action) Running fast (participle), he sweated (verb) (b) In the case of 2 subjects e.g. It was a rainy day (1st action). We stayed indoors It, being a rainy day, we stayed indoors Its types (a) ing : e.g. Father wore his shoes (1st verb). He went for a walk (2nd verb) Wearing his shoes (participle), Father went for a walk (verb) (b) being : being replaces ‘to be’ forms (i.e.) am, is , are, was, were. e.g. He was smart. He solved the problem Being smart (participle), he solved the problem (verb) CONJUNCTION DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES Definition : A conjunction is a word which joins together two. words, clauses or sentences A term which refers generally to words that have a conjoining or linking role in grammar A list of words commonly used are called Conjunction e.g. and or but while however when till thus still since although unless though as if yet hence moreover for therefore neither... nor either... or not only... but also whether... or in order that on condition that even if so that all provided that in as much as as well as as soon as as if otherwise both Conjunctions are divided into two classes Refers to two rather different classes of words: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. These are sometimes called ‘coordinators’ and ‘subordinators’ respectively. e.g. Coordinating Subordinating and, or, but and sometimes nor, also if, when, because and so on PHRASAL VERB Definition: A phrasal verb is made up of a verb and an adverbial or a prepositional particle. It is used idiomatically to convey a special meaning completely different from the meaning expressed by the verb or the particle. The same verb followed by different particles conveys different meanings. Phrasal verbs are consist of two or three parts - an ordinary verb and another word or words like in, for or off. They are very common in English. LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS e.g. account for fixed up get out of back out keep in make up deal with ran after looked after care about watching for work out got on with left off made up feel out my mind join up keep up with looked up hold on get out ask after asked for help up keep down hold off died away drew back took out set in worked up threw away A GROUP OF PHRASAL VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS PHRASAL VERB MEANING BACK back up support back out withdraw PHRASAL VERB MEANING BEAR bear down defeat, overcome, crush bear out carry bear up have courage bear with endure, tolerate PHRASAL VERB MEANING BLOW blow out extinguish blow up explode PHRASAL VERB MEANING BREAK break up disperse, shatter break down fall, stop working / collapse break in / into enter by force break out appear and force out escape, spread suddenly break thro’ penetrate break off end PHRASAL VERB MEANING BRING bring forth produce bring about happen bring down fall bring out publish bring up educate, rear PHRASAL VERB MEANING CALL call for demand, wanted call in request to help, summon call off cancel call out shout call on to pay a short visit to a person call at to pay a short visit to a place PHRASAL VERB MEANING CARRY carry off win, snatch carry on continue carry out execute PHRASAL VERB MEANING COME come round recover come over affected come about happen, occur come cross to meet by chance, discover come off take place come on hurry come up move to a higher level or position PHRASAL VERB MEANING DROP drop in visit drop out discontinue PHRASAL VERB MEANING FALL fall for admire fall off decrease fall out quarrel fall through fail to be successfully completed, collapse fall upon attack PHRASAL VERB MEANING GET get away escape get on make progress, climb get over overcome, recover get round persuade get through pass get up Rise PHRASAL VERB MEANING GIVE give in surrender, collapse give out announce give up discountinue give way yield give away present, distribute PHRASAL VERB MEANING GO go about preform, do go after chase, follow go down to be recorded, believe will be remembered go into examine, investigate go on continue, hurry go through endure PHRASAL VERB MEANING HOLD hold on catch hold out give, offer hold back withhold hold up delay PHRASAL VERB MEANING KEEP keep back with hold keep down control, repress keep going on continue keep on continue keep to adhere to keep it up continue, maintain PHRASAL VERB MEANING LAY lay by save lay down (arm) surrender lay down (life) sacrifice PHRASAL VERB MEANING LOOK look back contemplate, reflect look after take care of look down despise, hate look for to try to find / search look into examine look over into examine, investigate look on consider, regard look out watchful, beware look to depend on PHRASAL VERB MEANING MAKE make after follow make for setout make away steal make out understand make up compensate / invent make fast secure make off run away PHRASAL VERB MEANING PASS pass away Die pass for considered as pass off falsely present, ignore pass through Undergo pass out Faint PHRASAL VERB MEANING PUT put across narrate put by save put down crush / write put forth announce put off postpone, delay put on wear put out extinguish put through implement put up stay / provide put up with endure, tolerate PHRASAL VERB MEANING RUN run across Meet run after chase, seek run down decline, collide, deteriorate run out exhaust, expire, completely used up run over Overflow run on Hurry PHRASAL VERB MEANING SEE see about deal see off witness one’s departure see through detect / penetrate see to attend PHRASAL VERB MEANING SET set against Oppose set about / on Start set in Begin set out / off Start set up Establish set to with determination, fight, active set aside Disregard PHRASAL VERB MEANING STAND stand up rise stand by support, wait stand up oppose, noticeable PHRASAL VERB MEANING TAKE take down Write take out Extract take after Resemble take in Deceive take on fight with, assume take up occupy, raise at take off leave, remove PHRASAL VERB MEANING THROW throw away Waste throw up Resign PHRASAL VERB MEANING TURN turn against dislike turn away refuse admission turn down reject, refuse turn on cause ot flow by unscrewing water, gas etc., gas turn off Stop turn out Produce turn up arrive, appear turn in Sleep turn upon Attack DEFINITIONS FOR IDIOM AND PHRASE Idiom Definition: An idiom is a group of two or more words which we have to treat as a unit in learning a language. We cannot arrive at the meaning of the idiom just by adding together the meaning of the words inside it. [to carry out = execute] Phrase Definition: Phrase is a group of words usually without predicate especially preposition with the word. [with blue eyes] A fixed or set expression that cannot be determined from the individual parts. e.g Alarm bells start to ring Alarm bells start to ring when I found out that he still lived with his mother. ABC Nancy does not know even the ABC of Maths. And so on He dances, sings and plays music and so on. As usual I had my cup in the morning, as usual. All over Michael has travelled all over the world. All along There are trees all along the road. All for I am all for it At last At last, we got at the conclusion At best At best he is a good master. At times He comes here, at times. At ease After the work was over, I was really at ease. At hand My exam is at hand. At a time Give me 100$ at a time. At heart Robert looks rough and tough but he is kind at heart. At sight A bank draft is payable at sight. At sixes and sevens All the books were at sixes and sevens. At once Go there at once. As if Robert talks as if he is my boss. As for As for his appointment so many letters have come As a rule As a rule, the first letter of a proper noun is always capital. As a result of As a result of police firing, three persons were killed at Paris on 25th of December, 2012. As long As As long as you believe in God you will be happy. At home You will surely feel there at home. AS well as Robert as well as David have gone. Act on This medicine will act on the heart. Act for Stella acted for me while I was ill. Account for You will have to account for every rupee you spent. On account of One account of illness, she did not cook today. On no account On no account I believe in what she says. Turn to account If you are offered with chance by the boss, turn to account. All the same No doubt Sarah has been busy, all the same she should have written. Agree with Hope you will agree with me that Sarah is a good girl. BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH THROUGH PICTURES There are differences in spelling for some words between Americans and British. British American Autumn Fall British American Aero plane Airplane British American Angry Mad British American Aerial Antenna British American Biscuit Cookie British American Book stall News stand British American Bar of chocolate Candy bar British American Cinema house Movie theatre British American Currency note Bill British American Car park Parking lot British American Consultant Specialist British American Exercise book Composition book British American Film Movie British American Flat Apartment British American Full stop Period British American Hand bag Purse British American Ill Sick British American Jam Jelly British American Lorry Truck British American Level crossing Grade crossing British American Lager Beer British American Main road Highway British American Police Constable Patrol man British American Post Mail British American Puncture Flat British American Post code Pin code British American Primary school Elementary school British American Queue Line British American Rubber Eraser British American Railway Rail road British American Ring up Call British American Shop Store British American Street beggar Pan holder British American Sweets Candy British American Skipping rope Jump rope British American Sellotape Scotch tape British American Sports man Athlete British American Taxi Cab British American Time table Schedule British American Trousers Pants British American Traffic light Stop light British American Torch Flash light British American Water tap Faucet British American Visiting Card Calling Card British American Mad Crazy British American Petrol Gasoline British American Luggage Baggage British American Chips Crisps British American Sun rise Sun up British American Sun set Sun down DEFINITIONS FOR ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYM Abbreviation Definition: An Abbreviation is a short form of a word or phrase. It is formed normally by the first letter of each word in the expression. Sometimes, the first, middle and the last letters of the word will make an abbreviation. Abbreviations are used for words used frequently. e.g Br Brother asst. assistant MP Member of Parliament rly railway STF Special Task Force Acronyms Definition: An Acronym is using the first letters of the group of words or first two or three letters of the group of words to form a word that can be pronounced as a word. An Acronym is a word formed form the initial letters of a name. Sometimes two or more letters can be formed. e.g LAN Local Area Network FERA Foreign Exchange Regulation Act Light Amplification by Stimulating Emission of LASER Radiation TELEX Tele-printer and Exchange FORTRAN Formula Translation Some Expanded Form of Abbreviations Used in Sentence ATM He withdrew money from the Automated Teller Machine of City Bank. BL Nehru did his Bachelor of Law in London. BIS We need a Business Information System to make plans for Business. BMA Some tooth paste has been certified by British Medical Association as dependable. CBI Central Bureau of Investigation arrested a local merchant in the metal fixing scan. CID Criminal Investigation Department collects sensitive information and passes it on to the Government. CD He bought the Encarta encyclopedia Compact Disc for $30/-. CPU Central Processing Unit is the brain of a computer. ISD International Subscriber’s Dialing has become cheaper now-a-day. NSS National Service Scheme throws open many opportunities to work for the downtrodden people. NOC Thomas needs No Objection Certificate from his office to apply for a passport. THE PRONOUN (1. Personal Pronoun, 2. Reflexive Pronoun, 3. Emphatic Pronoun, 4. Demonstrative Pronoun, 5. Relative Pronoun, 6. Interrogative Pronoun, 7. Indefinite Pronoun, 8. Distributive Pronoun) Definition : A pronoun is a word used instead of a common noun or a proper noun. The word pronoun means for a noun and it called a noun’s deputy. "Pro" + "noun" typically means "in place, of, instead of" a noun or a noun phrase. Pronouns, then, replace nouns (David met Joe; he [Joe] talked for an hour) and can also refer back to nouns (David is absent, because he is ill). CASE Nominative Case I We You He She It Me Us You Him Her Them They Accusative Case It Instrumental Case With me By me With you By you With him By him With her By her With it By it With us By us With you By you With them By them Dative Case To me To us To you To him To her To them From me From us From you From himFrom From her From them To it Ablative Case From it Genitive Case My Our Your His Her Their It Locative Case in me with me in you with you in him with him in her with her in it with it in us with us in you with you in them with them What is a noun phrase? A noun phrase includes a noun and all of its modifiers. These modifiers include determiners and adjectives Noun Phrase + Verb Pronoun + Verb Tom eats The little boy eats He reads The Noun ‘Tom’ and ‘boy’ is replaced by the Pronoun ‘he’ PRONOUN TAKES the place of a noun in a sentence when the noun repeated more than once. e.g. Incorrect Call David. I must speak to David. Correct Call David. I must speak to him. More Definition: The noun represented by a pronoun is called its antecedent. The word ante means "before," and cede means "come." So the literal meaning of antecedent is "comes before." Usually, the antecedent comes before the pronoun in a sentence. Pronouns have masculine and feminine gender, singular and plural forms and have nominative, possessive and objectives cases Pronouns are used as performers/subjects or as words which receive action. e.g. PERFORMER / SUBJECT PRONOUNS PRONOUNS WHICH RECEIVE ACTION I me We you You them He his She her It it They him Who whom Types of Pronouns by Function More Definition: There are several different types of pronouns, each type serving a different function in the sentence. 1. Subject Pronouns Definition: Pronouns that are found to the left of the main verb are called subject pronouns because they tell us who or what the doer of the verb is, or who or what is described by the verb. Subject Pronouns Singular Plural I we You you He She It they 2. Object Pronouns Definition: Object pronouns are another type of pronoun. These are pronouns that replace nouns or noun phrases in object position in the sentence. Object position means that the noun or noun phrase receives the action of the verb. Phrase Function The boy reads noun phrase in subject position Boy reads subject pronoun The boy reads books noun phrase in object position 1. The boy is the subject of the verb reads. The noun phrase the boy answers the question Who reads? a question that helps tell us who (or what) the subject of the verb is. 2. Since the boy is in subject position and refers to a single male person, the subject pronoun she can replace the boy 3. Books is the object of the verb reads. The words books answers the question What does the boy (or he) read? a question that helps tell us what (or who) the object of the verb is. Following is a list of the most common pronouns: Singular Plural Both Singular and Plural I, me we, us any she, her they none he, him them all it these most anyone those more either some who each that which many a both what nothing ourselves you one any another many everything few mine several his, hers others this that PREPOSITIONS Definition: A preposition is a word which is usually placed before a noun or pronoun to show the latter’s relation to some word in the sentence. e.g Pronoun Verb Prep. Noun They meet before lunch Article Noun Prep. Pronoun A letter for you By definition, a preposition is placed before a word ("prepositioned") to indicate the word’s meaning within the context of the sentence e.g of the world for a friend at a hotel Some Common Prepositions: about as but above at by across before down after below for along beside from Around between in Into of onto Like off over Near on past Per than under Since through Until Till to Up With without e.g across around beyond into near toward He walked out the forest Position As its name tells us, a preposition is normally ‘placed before’ a noun phrase or some other element. The preposition + noun phrase together form aPREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. Position of prepositions in different kinds of sentence: e.g Who is she working for? She’s working for a friend In the first example shows the preposition at the end of the sentence, and the second example shows the preposition in its usual position, at the front of its noun phrase. Prepositional Adverb Many word forms which are prepositions are also adverbs. These adverbs are called Prepositonal Adverbs. Most of them are adverbs of place. Some Common Prepositional Adverbs: about by round above down since across in through after inside throughout around near under before on up behind opposite within below outside without between past over beyond Prepositions are usually in front of a noun phrase, whereas prepositional adverbs usually stand alone, without a following noun phrase. Preposition She stayed in the house Adverb She stayed in Preposition The guests were standing around the room Preposition The guests were standing around Prepositional adverbs are always stressed. Prepositions are frequently unstressed. Prepositional Verb We use the term prepositional verb for an IDIOM made up of verb + preposition. add to care for look for agree with consent to pay for aim at / for deal with pray for allow for decide on refer to apply for hope for rely on approve of insist on run for ask for listen to stand for attend to live on take after believe in long for take to belong to look after wish for call for / on look at The verb and preposition express a single idea. e.g He takes after his grandfather (resembles) We have asked for help (request) I have to look after the house (take care of) The verb and preposition are often together at the end of a sentence e.g I do not know who this book belongs to We scarcely have enough to live on Have the new chairs been paid for? Kinds of Prepositions Simple Prepositions Compound Prepositions Phrasal Prepositions THE INFINITIVE Definition: Infinitive is non-finite verbs. Infinitive is formed by adding to with a verb that acts as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence When a verb is in its infinitive state, it has no subject or object. It is used to define the action of the verb without tying it to a specific person. It is a verb acting without a subject. The infinitive is the verb in its purest form. An infinitive should be treated as a single word with a single meaning. List of Infinitive Verbs Infinitives in Regular Verbs e.g. To answer To arrive To ask To dry To carry To clean To close To enjoy To finish To hate To help To hope To invite To listen To locate To look To love To need To prefer To rain To receive To remember To repair To repeat To request To smoke To start To stay To study To suggest To talk To try To use To visit To wait To walk To want To wash To watch To wish To work To believe To join To reform To express To catch To consult To present To fit To knowledge To disscuss To respect e.g. They were the first to arrive, were not they? I have to finish this book before march Do not hesitate to help her They refuse to talk Infinitives in Irregular Verbs e.g. To begin To buy To build To come To bring To cut To do To drink To drive To eat To fall To feel To find To forget To get To give To go To have To hear To keep To know To learn To leave To lend To lose To make To meet To pay To put To read To run To say To see To sell To send To shut To sing To sit To sleep To speak To spend To stand up To swim To take To teach To tell To think To shine To understand To wear To write e.g. We have to eat that we may live I tried to speak English I do not know how to sing It seems it is easy to learn English What is a split infinitive? Inserting a word or phrase between to and the verb creates a split infinitive e.g. Before the game, the team was told to warm up by running around the field. What is an infinitive phrase? A phrase beginning with the infinitive form of a verb that functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence. e.g. Cena likes to swim and to fish Cena likes to swim and fish Other uses of Infinitives To express purpose or reason e.g. I accepted him to go to the park I wanted to buy vegetables in the market Adjective + Infinitive e.g. The concept is easy to understand English is interesting to read Noun or Pronoun + infinitive e.g. He asked my brother to stop smoking My parents asked my friend to read well for the examinations Too + Adjective + Infinitive e.g. The coffee is too hot to drink The man is too bulky to enter the room Infinitive can be used to replace a clause e.g. I know how I can solve the problem I know how to solve the problem Generally verbs take to with them to make an infinitive but some verbs become infinitive without to. These are also called bare infinitive or plain infinitive. e.g. I made him go Let him go I saw him cross the railway track The minister helped abolish poverty The above verbs can take ‘to’ when it is used in the passive voice. e.g. He was made to go by him He was seen to cross the railway track The modal auxiliaries do not take to infinitive. He will pay the bill I can speak English You should work harder You must come to the office at nine THE ADVERB Definition : An adverb is used to modify an adjective, a verb or other adverb. It tells us about an action, or the way something is done. An adverb can be formed from an adjective by adding the suffix -ly. e.g. Drive carefully She writes neatly He acts cleverly She gets up early in the morning Westerns can be very exciting She yelled loudly Drive carefully Whose car is this? Note : It’s important to keep in mind that not all -ly words are adverbs. Some can be adjectives: friendly, neighborly, yearly, mannerly, daily, lovely, elderly, and cowardly, to name just a few. If the -ly modifies a noun or pronoun is called adjective. If the -ly modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb is called adverb. Adverbs answer four specific questions about the verbs, adjectives, and adverbs they modify: e.g. How? quickly, gracefully, fluently When? late, never, tomorrow Where? there, inside, below How often? very, well, almost Adverb Phrases Adverb phrases are groups of words that functions as single adverbs to describe the action of the verb. e.g. The bus arrived on time She draws cartoons like a real cartoonist What is a simple adverb? Definition : An adverb used as a simple modifier to convey degree, manner, number, place, or time. Two Adverbs sometimes go together, joined by the conjunction and; as e.g. again and again now and then by and by once and again far and wide out and out first and foremost off and on far and wide over and above INTERJECTION Definition: An Interjection is a word put into a sentence to show some sudden feeling or emotion. Interjections do not refer to anything, but simply express the speaker’s emotion or wish. In grammatical terms, they occur in isolation as an exclamation, or are loosely added on to a sentence Interjection has two types such as Mild Interjection and Strong Interjection. Mild Interjection (Punctuated with Comma) e.g. well Of course such Strong Interjection (Punctuated with Exclamation point) e.g. Hurrah! Bravo! Hush! Hello! Ugh! Ah! Ha! ha! Oh! Well done! Alas! Fie! Hi! Ha! Yes! Ouch! Help! Happy Birthday! Good morning! Wow! Hush! Hark! Use an exclamation point at the end of a sentence that shows a strong feeling such as surprise or fear. An exclamation point is used instead of a period. Notice that an exclamation point (!) is often used after interjections e.g. What! The house caught fire Wow! Did you see that? Hurrah! We have won the match Alas! The soldier is dead Oh! What a pretty dress it is Ah! Here comes the actor at last Hello! How do you do? What! Has he invited you! Hush! Don’t make a noise How wise he is! Oh! What a nice game he played Hurrah! we have won Hello! What are you doing there? Ah! I have hurt my toe Hush! The baby may wake up Hark! I hear a drum SENTENCE PATTERN DEFINITION There are five important components in a sentence. e.g. Subject (S) Verb (V) Complement Adverbial Object (O) (C) (A) 1. SUBJECT (S) Definition : To get ‘S’ ask the question ‘Who?’ before the verb. e.g. Nancy danced well (Here “Nancy” - Subject) The child broke the glass (Here “The child” - Subject) consists of nouns or pronouns Subject (S) occurs before a verb 2. VERB (V) Definition: In every sentence the most important word is the verb. A verb shows action or activity or work done. e.g. He is a doctor (“Be” form verb) Jems wrote a letter (Main verb) The baby is crying (auxiliary verb + Main verb) consists of (a) auxiliaries Verb (V) (b) finite verbs (a) Auxiliaries e.g. am, is, are ,was, were has, have, had does, do, did Modals : can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must Semi-modals / Quasi Modals : dare to; need to; used to; ought to (b) Finte verbs - denote action e.g. talk, sing, write, make, dance, play, cook, leave, teach, sleep - verbs occur after the subject - vebs occur before the object 3. OBJECT (O) Definition : To get the object ‘O’ ask the question ‘What’ or ‘Whom’. ‘What’ is for things and ‘Whom’ is for a person. Persons may be nouns or pronouns. e.g. He bought a pen (a pen = Object) He handles the computer (computer = Object) I saw him (him = Object) Object (O) - consists of nouns or noun phrases or noun clauses - direct object (a) Do - answers the question ‘what’ e.g. S V O (what) I likes animals - indirect object (b) IO - answers the question ‘whom’ e.g. S V IO (whom) I gave Rosy DO a pen 4. COMPLEMENT (C) Definition: The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence are called Complement of the sentence. e.g. S V C He is a dentist She became a journalist It grew dark Complement (C) - from the word ‘complete’ - completes the meaning in the sentence - without it the, meaning is incomplete - without it the, meaning changes occurs in two pattern. (i) S V C pattern. (ii) S V O C pattern (i) In S V C pattern, the complement C - complements the subjects - tells about the subject - without it the, meaning changes - without C, the sentence is incomplete or the sentence changes its meaning - use to be forms, grew, became, seems for verb e.g. S V C They are players She was angry It seems absurd (ii) In S V O C pattern - the complement tells about the object - the complement and object are of the same person or thing e.g. S V O C They called David a genius I found her crying They elected Michele leader Types of Complement 1. Subject Complement Definition: The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is called Subject Complement. e.g. She is a doctor She looks sad 2. Object Complement Definition : The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object Complement. e.g. They made her angry She called him a liar Adjunct or Adverbial Definition : To get ‘A’ ask the question why, when, where or how. The use of adverbial is optional whereas complement is essential. It has adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun-phrase and prepositional phrase. e.g. Why? (reason) When? (Time) Where? (Place) How? (Manner) due to cold now, later here, there by bus / cycle through floods after 2 years every where through efforts under compulsion when young carefully in the morning in the sky by mixing at home by hard work Adjunct - A - answers the questions where? when? how? why? - without A, any change in the meaning of the sentence Examples of Adjuncts in sentences e.g. S V A She Comes every day - Sit here ERROR SPOTTING IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR When use of Articles : e.g. 1 It takes me a hour to reach the temple. ans: an hour - words beginning with ‘h’ such as: - hour, honor, honest, heir historical (adjective) are considered silent, so the vowel following it takes ‘an’ for the article. - hence an hour, an heir, an honor etc. e.g. 2 An European visited in India. ans: A European - when ‘u’ or ‘eu’ takes a ‘u’ or ‘you’ pronunciation (‘y’ is a consonant) so the article ‘a’ should be used. - hence a European, a university, a union, a unit, etc. e.g. 3 Game came to an end soon. ans: The game - we are talking about a particular game. e.g. 4 Rich should help poor. ans: The rich ... the poor - rich / poor represent the people representations use ‘the’ Errors in using Prepositions: e.g. 1 Divide this apple amoung Robert and David. ans: between - among (to be used for more than two) e.g. 2 Divide this apple between the girls. ans: among - between (to be used for only two) e.g. 3 I go to school on bus / on bike ans: by (for vehicles) - use ‘on foot’ to mean ‘we walk’ to school. e.g. 3 She aims to do well in the exams. ans: use aim ‘at’ - She aims at doing well in the exams. e.g. 4 The patient is now free of danger. ans: free from - use free ‘from’ danger/risk/disease. e.g. 5 She called at her friend. ans: called on - use called ‘at’ a place ... his friend’s house. - use called ‘on’ a person -> means to visit. Agreement of the subject and the verb: e.g. 1 Rosy and Sarah is friends. ans: are friends - use plural verbs for ‘and’. e.g. 2 She or he have done well. ans: has done - when ‘or’ joins two subjects, the verb agrees with the second subject. She or he is... David or his friends are... My friends or I am... e.g. 3 The chief minister as well as his followers are at the ans: - is meeting. The boys with their teacher are out in the field. ans: - are The moon along with the stars shine at night. ans: - shines - when using ‘with / along with / together with / as well as’ the verb should agree with the first subject. e.g. 4 Either my neighbor or her children is coming for dinner. ans: are Neither they nor I were mistaken. ans: was - when using either-or / neither-nor the verb agrees with the second subject. e.g. 5 Each of them are England citizens. ans: is Every one of the barrels are full. ans: is Not one of the boys are doing well. ans: is One of the boys are missing. ans: is - sentences using ‘each of / everyone of / one of / not one of’ use the singular form of the verb. e.g. 6 None of them have arrived yet. ans: has None is genuine. ans: are - None of -> uses singular verb. (has) - None -> uses plural verb. (are) Errors in use of Pronouns: e.g. One must not reveal his secrets to all. ans: one’s secrets to all - ‘one’ as a subject should use one’s. - reason -> ‘one’ does not indicate the gender-where male / female. Errors in use of Conjunctions: e.g. 1 As we were late so we apologized. ans: As we were late we apologized. - use either ‘as’ or ‘so’ - do not use both ‘as ... so’. Each sentence should use only one conjunction. e.g. 2 The woman is so poor and she cannot save anything. ans: The woman is so poor that he cannot save anything. - use ‘so’ with ‘that...not’. e.g. 3 She has been waiting for ans: waiting for you since 3 hours. you since 3 p.m.. - use ‘since’ to denote the starting time of action. - ‘for’ for calculating time. waiting for you for 3 hours. Errors in use of Plurals: e.g. 1 Much water are wasted. ans: Much water is wasted. - use ‘is’ - singular verb. - reason -> ‘much’ is used for uncountable nouns. e.g. 2 Many students has turned up for the seminar. ans: Many students have turned up.... - use ‘have’ -> plural verb. - ‘many’ is used for countable noun. QUESTION TAGS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR Definition: Sometimes people finish what they are saying with a short question. Why do they do this? Because they want to know if the person they are speaking to agrees with them. A Question Tag is the shortest form of a question using the verb plus pronoun. RULES FOR QUESTION TAGS   A positive statement uses a negative tag. A negative statement uses a positive tag. e.g NEGATIVE TAG It is raining, isn’t it? The main part of the sentence is positive, but the question tag is negative. POSITIVE TAG It is not raining, is it? The main part of the sentence is negative, but the question tag is positive. 1.STATEMENT WITH AUXILIARIES: e.g 1 David is older than you, isn’t he? 2 It is dark, isn’t it? 3 He and I can go by bus, can’t we? 4 Sally can’t dance, can she? 5 Tigers are dangerous, aren’t they? 6 Sarah and Rita will come, won’t they? » If the main part of the sentence has I am in it, use aren’t I in the question tag. » If the main part of the sentence has I am not in it, use am I in the question tag. e.g 1 I am your best teacher, aren’t I? 3 I am not your best teacher, am I? 2 I am taller than you, aren’t I? 4 I am not taller than you, am I? 2. STATEMENT WITHOUT AUXILIARIES: e.g 1 She sings beautifully, doesn’t she? 2 Rivers flow towards the sea, don’t they? 3 The sun shines hot in summer, doesn’t it? 4 Kabil broke the world record, didn’t he? 3. a. STATEMENTS USING AUXILIARIES: e.g: As has/have/had 1 The bell has rung, hasn’t it? 2 The flowers have drooped, haven’t they? b. STATEMENTS USING THE MAIN VERB: e.g: As has/have/had - use do/does/did forms 1 A lion has sharp claws, doesn’t it? 2 Indians have great respect for traditions, don’t they? 4. STATEMENTS HAVING NEGATIVE WORDS USE POSITIVE TAG: e.g: Using no, none, never, not, neither-nor 1 Rosy is not going to come today, is she? 2 The cuckoo has no care for its eggs, does it? 3 My father never smokes, does he? 4 Neither John nor David has any bad habits, do they? e.g: Using little, few, scarcely, hardly, rarely 1 2 David shows little care in his studies, does he? Antony scarcely listens in class, does he? 3 Few planets can be seen, can they? 4 They rarely lose their points, do they? 5. STATEMENTS HAVING a little/a few ARE POSITIVE: e.g: Therefore they use negative tag 1 A little sugar is added to sauces, isn’t it? 2 I have a few chocolates to share, haven’t I? 6. Only USES BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TAGS: e.g: 1 Only children are allowed to play in the park, are/aren’t they? 2 She did only one mistake, did/didn’t she? 2 Let’s get together for a party, shall we? 7. Let’s USES shall we: e.g: 1 Let’s go home, shall we? 8. SIMPLE REQUESTS USE will you?: e.g: 1 Pass me the pen, will you? 2 Get me a ticket, will you? 9. URGENT REQUESTS won’t you?: e.g: 1 Send the e-mail, immediately, won’t you? 2 Pass on the message soon, won’t you? 10. IMPATIENT REMARKS can’t you?: e.g: 1 Keep quiet, can’t you? 2 Listen to me, can’t you? 11. STATEMENTS USING each, every, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, none, nobody: e.g: - take a plural pronoun - they 1 Everybody cheered, didn’t they? 2 Somebody can do it, can’t they? Rephrasing of Sentences I. Despite and Inspite Despite and Inspite are used to express the concept of contrast. They can be used interchangeably. they mean the same as ‘although, though or even though’. But although though and even though are subordinate conjunctions. despite + noun phrase inspite of e.g Despite his physical handicap he is a successful business man. although though eventhough + subject + verb + (complement) e.g Although he is physically handicapped, he is a successful business man. II. Hope and Wish These two verbs, while they are similar in meaning, are not all the same grammatically. The verb ‘hope’ is used to indicate something that possibly happened or will possibly happen. The verb wish is used to indicate something that definitely did not happen or definitely will not happen. e.g We hope that they will visit. We hope that they visited yesterday. We wish that they could come. Wish is also used to express unreal condition. Present wish I wish I were a singer. If I were a bird I would fly. If I were you I would not attend this meeting. Past unreal condition If you had been here last night, you would have seen the film. Past wish She wishes that she could have been here earlier. We wish that you had been at Paris last night. In these sentences the word ‘that’ is optional. Future wish We wish that you could come to the party tonight. She wishes that she were coming with us. I wish I had enough time to finish the proof correction. III Some Adverbs hardly, barely, scarcely, seldom, rarely, never. These words which are similar in meaning, negative or restrictive ideas. I have hardly any money. Hardly had he finished his work when somebody knocked at the door. We hardly go to movies. ‘Barely’ is often used with adjectives such as enough and sufficient. These people have barely enough to eat. After the loss in business he has barely enough to support himself. Kuwait lies barely 48 km from the Iranian coast. If any of these adverbs occur at the beginning of a sentence, the subject must follow the verb as in a question: Rarely and seldom are broad negatives Rarely do we come across such good people. Seldom have I seen such beautiful flowers. IV. Conditional sentences (hypothetical and impossible) In these conditional sentences past perfect will be followed by perfect conditional. 1. If you had bought a car a year ago (Past Perfect) it would have cost you much less than now. (Perfect Conditional) 2. Had you bought a car a year ago (Past Perfect inverted) it would have cost you much less than now. (Perfect Conditional) V. Had better The meaning of had better (I’d better) is similar to should. 1. I’d better do something. I should do something (or) it is advisable for me to do something. If I do not do this, something bad might happen. 2. I have to meet Supra now, I had better go now. 3. You had better take an umbrella, it may rain. ARTICLES Definition : A, an, and the are special adjectives. These are called Articles. When articles combine with nouns, they form noun phrases: There are two articles in English Types Words Examples The Indefinite article A or An A king, an elephant The Definite Article The Call the man Use of a / an / the 1. ‘A’ / ‘An’ means one. So we can use ‘a’ / ‘an’ only with singular countable nouns. 2. An is not used with plural nouns or proper nouns. 3. ‘A’ / ‘An’ cannot be used with uncountable nouns. For example, We cannot say : a milk, a water, a tea, a sugar, a rice. ‘The’ can be used with all nouns (singular or plural). THE VERB Definition: A verb is an action or express word. It indicates the action or express in the present, past and future tenses. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS Verbs have four principal parts of verbs or fundamental forms that are used to create a tense e.g. Present Past Past Participle Present Participle abandon abandoned abandoned abandoning accept accepted accepted accepting go went gone going take took taken taking become became became becoming cut cut cut cutting read read read reading complete completed completed completing delete deleted deleted deleting AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT Definition: A verb must agree with its Subject in Number and Person. When we use a verb, we have to say who or what is doing the action. This ‘who or what’ is the subject of the verb. The subject and the verb agree when they match each other. Singular Verb Use a singular verb if the subject is a singular noun. e.g. John goes to office She eats a mango The poet composes poetry They build a temple This form of the verb is called the third person singular. You use it when the subject of the verb is not you or the person you are speaking to, but some other person - a third person - or a thing. The third person singular verbs that end in ‘s’ e.g. Runs Waits Goes Rings e.g. My uncle and guardian has come Plural Verb Mom and Dad love us Use a plural verb if the subject is a plural noun. Do not add s, es or ies to plural verbs. Plural verbs are also used with the pronouns I, we, you and they. e.g. My brothers listen to music a lot Some people drink coffee The stars shine brightly on a clear night Some children learn very fast I listen to music a lot We drink tea on every day You eat well They build a temple The Verb gives us what people, animals or things are doing. It has six basic verb forms : The Six Basic Verb Forms e.g. Base Form walk go Present walk / walks go / goes Past walked went Infinitive to walk to go Present Participle walking going Walked gone Past Participle Base Form The base form is the source for the present, infinitive, and past participle of the verb. Present : This refers to something that is existing or happening now or happens routinely. e.g. I do my homework daily He goes to temple The main difference between the present and base forms is that the third-person singular present form adds -s or -es to the base form of the verb; Past : This form of a verb is used to indicate that something has already been completed. e.g. I did my homework He went to temple Infinitive : The infinitive of a verb consists of to 1 its base form. e.g. to buy to get to go Past Participle: This is formed by regular verbs or irregular verbs. It is used with the helping verb such as has, have or had. e.g. I have completed my homework She has come home Present Participle: This is formed by adding -ing to the end of present verbs. It is used with forms of the verb to be, such as am, is, are, was, or were. This expresses an ongoing action e.g. I am going to school He is playing cricket The verbs of a simple sentence Verb is a core of every sentence. Without verb, a group of words is only a fragment of a sentence instead of a complete sentence. Even if a sentence contains only one word, that word must be a verb: e.g. Run! Wait! Go! Ring! Every verb must have a subject, expressed or understood. The subject of a verb is to assert something about its subject that is, to tell what the subject does (did, will do) or that the subject is (was, will be) something. Subject + verb e.g. Subject Verb Horse eats This sentence consists of one clause. The clause has two parts, a Subject and aVerb. But this is not a complete sentence. Subject + verb + object e.g. Subject Verb Object Horse eats grass The object of a clause is normally comes after the verb. This sentence is a complete sentence. The grass is clearly affected by the action of eating GERUND Definition: Gerunds are present participles that are used as nouns and end with an ing. Gerunds can function as the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, a predicate nominative or complement, or the object of a preposition. The -ing form is a general term for words called either 'gerund' or 'present participle' in traditional approaches to grammar. List of Gerunds e.g. answering arriving asking reading carrying cleaning closing enjoying finishing discussing helping consulting inviting listening watching looking fitting joining working raining receiving remaining walking washing visiting smoking starting staying studying waiting talking taking running selling sending singing sleeping spending eating fishing fixing doing coming asking for writing wearing trying to travelling Gerund with Examples e.g. Getting up Having a bath Having breakfast/lunch/dinner Getting dressed Going home/to work/to the office Driving home/to work/to the office Reading letters/the newspaper Working in the office Talking with friends Buying the paper/cigarettes Watching TV Writing to a friend Calling up a friend Playing cards/soccer Walking to the park Running across the park Visiting a museum Washing the car Cooking a meal As the subject of the sentence e.g. Singing is her favorite pastime Singing is formed from the verb sing by adding -ing. We also see that it is here used as the subject of a verb, and hence does the work of a Noun. It is therefore a Verb-Noun and is called a Gerund. As the object of the sentence e.g. I like playing cricket We have improved our speaking As the complement of the sentence e.g. My only physical work is walking His hobby is reading and painting As the object of a preposition e.g. She is fond of reading books He was prevented from meeting his friend PARTS OF SPEECH Look at the following sentences and find the words with different grammatical functions. e.g. There is a drop in the prices of pulses Do not drop the waste here See how the word ‘drop’ is used as a noun in the first sentence and as a verb in the second sentence. the same word is used with different grammatical functions. A number of words have different grammatical functions in different contexts with different meaning. INTERCHANGE OF PARTS OF SPEECH The following prefixes or suffixes at the beginning or end or the word determine whether they are Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives or Adverbs. e.g. Verb Noun Adjective en- -ment -able im- -ness -ible -es -tion -ive -ed -sion -ful -ire/ize -ance -al -fy -cy -ant Adverb -ly -en -ity -ic -ate -th -ave -ish -ce -ent -dom -ant -ship -ar -hood -ing -er/or -y Some Important words can be changed into all the four forms. e.g. Verb Noun Adjective Adverb devote devotee, devotion devoted, devotional devotedly, devotionally contract construction constructive constructively harmonized harmony harmonious harmoniously Sensed sense sensitive, sensible sensitively, sensibly possess possessions possessive possessively Reflect reflection, reflectiveness reflective reflectively astonished astonishment astonishing astonishingly integrate integration integral integrally Fancied fancy fanciful fancifully Impose imposition imposing imposingly bonded bond bonded, bonding bonding stylized style stylish stylishly expertise expertness, expert expert expertly symbolize symbol symbolic, symbolical symbolically proportioned proportion proportionate proportionately excite excitement excited excitedly form formation formative formatively speeded, sped speed speedy speedily exceed excess excessive excessively confuse confusion confusing confusingly attract attraction attractive attractively notice notice noticeable noticeably vary variation, variety various variedly stressed stress stressful stressfully economies economy economic, economical economically relate relation, relativity relative relatively systematize system systematic, systemic systematically initiate initiation initiative initiatively tensed tension tensed tensely tasted taste, tastefulness tasty, tasteful tastefully remedied remedy remedial remedially acquiesce acquiescence acquiescent acquiescently sophisticate sophistication sophisticate sophistically revere reverence reverential reverentially obey obedience obedient obediently regarded regard regardful regardfully forced force forcible forcibly depend dependence dependent dependently secure security secured securely devote devotion devotional devotionally define definition definite definitely compare comparison comparative comparatively enrich riches rich, richer richly inform information infromative informatively amazed amazement amazing amazingly pitied pity piteous piteously delighted delight delightful delightfully popularize popularity popular popularly wondered wonder wonderful worderfully expect expectation expectant expectantly needed need, needy needful needfully amuse amusement amusing amusingly lavished lavishness lavish lavishly believe belief, believer believable believably particularize particular, particularity particular particularly sensed sense sensible sensibly respond response responsive responsively commune community communal communally act action, act active actively brief brevity brief briefly energies energy energetic energetically famed fame famous famously specify specification specific, specifiable specifically compose composer composed composedly figured figure figurative figuratively observe observance observable observably relate relationship relative relatively fascinate fascination fascinating fascinatingly entertain entertainment entertaining entertainingly clear clarity clear clearly loved love lovable lovingly think thought thoughtful thoughtfully decide decision decisive decisively appreciate appreciation appreciative appreciatively feared fear fearful fearfully THE SENTENCE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE Definition: A sentence is a grammatically independent unit of expression, made up of two essential parts called the Subject and the Predicate. Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. THE TWO MAIN PARTS OF A SENTENCE e.g. The Subject The Predicate e.g. The girl dances well The girl is a subject and dances well is the predicate. If I come up to you and say "The girl", you know that is the subject about which I wish to talk. But I have said nothing about the subject. To make a sentence I must say something about the girl. If I say "The girl dances well", I have expressed a complete thought and I have made a sentence. In grammar the person or thing we speak about is called the subject. What we say about the subject is called the predicate. THE SUBJECT Definition: Subjects tell the listener and the reader whom or what the sentence is about. The subject is that part of a sentence which names a person, thing, or idea e.g. The master The teacher Stars The dog Flowers The sun Clock The girl The horse David The Child The newspaper Every complete subject contains a simple subject. The simple subject, which is a noun or pronoun, is the most important word in the complete subject. e.g. A loud argument The newspaper article We listened to the radio at the beach Sausage and mushrooms are Leo’s favorite pizza toppings THE PREDICATE Definition: The predicate is that part of a sentence which tells something about the subject. e.g. teaches well eats grass twinkle at night the phonograph shines during the day bite the boy crows in the morning dances well is clever A simple predicate (or verb) describes the action or condition of the subject or subjects in a sentence. e.g. Danielle sketched always support each other rarely complains about snow SUBJECT AND PREDICATE EXAMPLES Notice how the following sentences are divided into subject and predicate: e.g. Subject Predicate The teacher teaches well Stars twinkle at night Flowers bloom in the garden Dogs like to bark and sniff Active boys never stop playing The birds always sing early in the morning The horse is white The young, worried pilot read the storm warning Taylor and Charlie played with their toys The waiter tripped and fell over the diner’s legs HOMOPHONES EXAMPLES WITH DEFINITIONS Definition: Words pronounced alike but having different spelling and meaning are called Homophones. ‘New’ and ‘Knew’; ‘no’ and ‘Know’; to, two, too: are some of the examples of homophones. e.g. ‘Meat’ refers to the flesh of four footed animal. - but ‘meet’ which has the same pronunciation means to come together by chance or arrangement. There are lot of homophones in the English language. The study of homophones enriches one’s vocabulary. Here is a list of common homophones. Study them deeply and understand the meaning carefully. SOME IMPORTANT HOMOPHONES LIST e.g. All [everything] All the people you invited have attended. Awl [a small point tool] The wood was carved with an awl. Ail [troubles] Mental agony ails her. ale [Kind of beer] They were with ale for dinner. Altar [Platform for worship] Sacrifices were offered on the altar. Alter [to change] She had to alter her clothes after losing weight. Aloud [noisely] Do not talk aloud. Allowed [permitted] They were allowed to go out. Ascent [The action of Edmond Hillary made his ascent on Mount Everest first. going up] Assent [approval] The President gave his assent to the financial bill. Advice [counsel] He gave an advice to his son . Advise [To give counsel] Teacher advised all the students. Adapt [To fit] Sachin found difficult to adapt in England. Adopt [accept one as son] I want to adopt a child. Birth [Born] She gave birth to a female child. Berth [With bed] I reserved 4 berths for my family. Bare [empty] He went bare footedly. Bear [carry] You have to bear the inconvenience. Bail [on condition let out] He was let on bail. Bale [bundle] The cotton bale was loaded in the lorry. Ball [football] I am watching football. Bawl [shouted] The angry man bawled at me. Brake [stop] The drive applied the brake. Break [make into pieces] He tried to break the fused bulb. Beech [a kind of tree] We sat under the shade in the beech. Beach [sea shore] Children were playing in the beach. Base [bottom, foundation] The base of the tower is broad. Bass [notes for singing] He sang with base notes. Bolder [More courageous] Abdul is bolder than Rahim. boulder [A large smooth rock] There was a boulder blocking the path. Boarder [A pupil who lives at a boarding school] Robert was studying as a boarder. Border [Line dividing two countries] There is always a dispute about the Indo China border. Born [Come to life] James was born in London. Borne [Carried] She had borne the child. Beat [to strike] Do not beat a baby. Beet [a vegetable] Beet gives vitamin A. Bred [Brought up] He was well-bred. Bread [a Bread is a good food. baked food] Be [To exist] You should be quiet. Bee [Insect] Bees give honey. Blwe [did blow] Police man blew the whistle to stop the car. Blue [A color] I wear the blue trouser. By [at] The chair was made by the carpenter. Bye [By the way] Good bye. Buy [To purchase] I buy a ball. Carat [Unit to measure diamond, gold:] Diamond is measured in carat. Carrot [A kind of vegetable] Vitamin A is rich in carrot. Ceiling [To cover upper The ceiling of the rooms must be high. surface] Sealing [Stamp] We use a kind of wax for sealing letters. Cereal [food grain rich in carbohydrate] Rice is a cereal. Serial [forming a series] Serial number comes according to alphabetical order of the names. Check [Examine or control] The teacher advised her students to check whether they have attempted all the questions. Cheque [Bank written order] I got a cheque for $100 from my father. Cell [small room] The prisoner is locked up in a cell. Sell [exchange things for money] They sell the fruits at a high price. Cymbal [a round brass plate used Rosy plays the cymbal in our school band: in a musical instrument] Symbol [Emblem] Dove is the symbol of peace. Cue [Signal] The director made a cue to the actor to start. Queue [a line of people] There was long queue in the ticket counter. Council [assembly] There is student’s council in this school. Counsel [advice] Teacher guides and counsels the students. Carrier [One who carries goods] This lorry is a public carrier. Career [mode of living] What is your future career? Canvas [Rough cloth] It is a canvas shoe. Canvass M.L.A. canvassed for the candidate in [Asking for vote] the election. Case [box / enclose] This is a suit case. Cash [money] Don’t have cash in the pocket while you are in the bus. Dual [double] He bought a dual desk. Duel [fight] The boy was hurt in the duel. Desease [sickness] He is weak because of disease. Decease [death] She is the wife of the diseased. Die [death] Many childred die on malnutrition. Dye [colour] He applied dye to his hair. Fair [good] She is a fair lady. Fare [charge] The ticket fare has been hiked. Flew [past tense for fly] Birds flew to warmer places. Flue [pipe in a chimney] Smoke is let out through flue. Grate [make harsh ground] The opposition parties grate the ruling party. Great [famous] William Shakespeare was a great English poet. Hew [chop or cut] The landlord asked the gardener to hew the branches. Hue [colour] We can see birds of varied hues at London Wetland Centre. Knight [soldier of a cavalry] The Knight fought bravely. Night [darkness] He came to our house last night. Lessen [to diminish] Machines lessen the burden of me. Lesson [task] I learnt a lesson from him. Loose [ill fitting] Her garments are loose. Lose [failing to keep something] Don’t lose the opportunity. Meter [Measurer] Thermometer is used to measure the temperature. PUNCTUATION MARKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR Definition: Punctuation marks are signs. We use them in sentences to make the meaning clear or structural portions of writing. They are a standardized symbols such as comma, period, question mark, exclamation point, semicolon, apostrophe, quotation marks, colon, dash, italic, parentheses, brackets and hyphen. Knowing a few simple rules and following a set of guidelines can make a writing experience, in any situation, easier to manage. The rules for all these forms of grammar have evolved over hundreds of years of use. The most common punctuation symbols are shown in the following table: e.g . PERIOD / FULL STOP , COMMA : COLON ; SEMICOLON ’ APOSTROPHE ‘’ SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE) “” DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE) ? QUESTION MARK ¿? SPANISH QUESTION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE) ! EXCLAMATION MARK ¡! SPANISH EXCLAMATION MARK (OPEN AND CLOSE) ... ELLIPSIS - HYPEN ⁄ SLASH \ BACKSLASH () PARENTHESES (OPEN AND CLOSE) [] BRACKETS (OPEN AND CLOSE) {} BRACES (OPEN AND CLOSE) What is Reported Speech Definition: In order to report a dialogue, one should be well-versed in changing sentences from Direct Speech to Indirect Speech. Of course, we need not reproduce the actual words of the speaker exactly. We are more concerned with the sense of the utterance than in the literal repetition of the words. The following guidelines will help you to refresh what you have studied about the transformation of sentences from Direct to Indirect Speech. Statements: When the utterance of the speaker is a statement we use the reporting verbs - say, tell. The conjunction used is - that. In order to preserve the original tone of the speaker ‘say’ or ‘tell’ can be replaced with:- suggest, agree, mutter, admit, insist, whisper, boast, state, remark, claim, object, protest, etc. What are the differences between the direct speech and the indirect speech?    There are several differences between a sentence with direct speech and a sentence with indirect speech. We no need to use quotation marks with indirect speech. We have to change the tense of the verb. We have to change the pronouns and determiners. e.g Dialogue Reported form He said, “I can speak four language”. He boasted that he could speak four languages. Some more examples. Dialogue Reported form “Let’s go out for a walk,” She suggested going out for a walk. “That mobile is mine”, He claimed that that mobile was him. “Yes, I took the mobile”, He admitted that he had taken the mobile. “You can’t arrest me”, He protested that they could not arrest him. “You shouldn’t take my laptop” He objected that I shouldn’t take his atlas. We can replace ‘tell’ with the following verbs suited to the context: complained, stammered, sneered, snapped, explained, declared, announced, groaned, promised, gasped, conceded, etc. Some Important Rules to Report the Dialogue: e.g: Direct Speech Indirect Speech The boy said to his friend, “I am waiting for you here now.” The boy told his friend that he was waiting for him there then. Changes to be noted: Kinds Dialogue Reporting Reporting Verb said to told I he Pronouns you him Tense am waiting was waiting Place Concept here there Time Concept now then CHANGES IN: A. Pronouns: Direct Speech Indirect Speech (Reported Speech) I, you he, she, it my, mine, your, yours his, her, hers, its we They our, ours their, theirs us Them B. Tense: Direct Speech (speaker’s words) Indirect Speech (Reporter or Listener) Present tense Past tense am, is, are was, were make, makes Made am / is / are eating was / were eating will / can / may eat would / could / might eat has, have Had has / have eaten had eaten Direct Speech (speaker’s words) Indirect Speech (Reporter or Listener) Present tense Past perfect tense was / were had been ate had eaten was / were eating had been eating C. Expressions of time and place indicating nearness are changed into one of distance: Direct Speech Indirect Speech (Reported Speech) now Then today that day tonight that night yesterday the previous day / the day before tomorrow the next / following day the day before yesterday two days before the day after tomorrow in two days last week the previous week or the week before last month the previous month or the month before last year the previous year or the year before next week / month / year the following week / month / year a week / month a week / month last night the previous night here There this / it That these Those thus So ago Before I. STATEMENTS: Kind of Sentences Reporting Verbs Conjunctions Statement said, told, suggested, admitted, remarked that a. Ordinary statements: Example: Direct Speech Rosy said, “I have a habit of reading before I go to bed”. Indirect Speech Rosy said that she had a habit of reading before she went to bed. Direct Speech David said, ‘Here is the pen I borrowed yesterday, John.” Indirect Speech David said to John that there was the pen he had borrowed the previous day. In reported speech people often leave out the conjunction that. Reported Speech Sarah said that she felt ill. Malika said that she couldn’t find her pen drive Peter said that David was hitting him. b. When the reporting verb is in the present or future tense there is no change in the tense of the reported clause: Example: Direct Speech Sarah says, “I like kids”. Indirect Speech Sarah says that she likes kids. c. When the reporting verb is in the past tense the verb of the reported clause is changed into the corresponding past tense: Example: Direct Speech Mohan said, “I have written a novel”. Indirect Speech Mohan said that he had written a novel. d. Present Progressive used as a future form becomes would be + present participle, not Past Progressive: Example: Direct Speech She said, “I am seeing the dentist next week”. Indirect Speech She said that she would be seeing the dentist the following week. e. Simple Past / past Progressive in adverb clauses of time do not usually change into the corresponding past tense: Example: Direct Speech She said, “When I lived / was living in a village I faced a lot of hardships”. Indirect Speech She said that when she lived/was living in a village she faced a lot of hardships. (Don’t use had lived / had been living) f. Unreal past tense (subjunctive mood) after wish / it is time remains unchanged: Example: Direct Speech She said, “I wish I were an angel.” Indirect Speech She said that she wished she were an angel. (Don’t use had been) g. Would rather / would sooner / had better remains unchanged: Example: Direct Speech He said, “I would rather starve than beg.” Indirect Speech He said that he would rather starve than beg. h. Verbs used in clauses expressing improbable or impossible condition remains unchanged: Example: Direct Speech He said, “If I won the election I would become a minister.” Indirect Speech He said that if he won the election he would become a minister. i. When the direct speech expresses universal truth (fundamental truths of science) saying / proverbs / habitual action, the tense does not change: Example: Direct Speech He said, “Habit is a second nature.” Indirect Speech He said that habit is a second nature. j. A noun / pronoun in the vocative case is made the object of a reporting verb or left out: Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out Example: you see, as you know, to tell you frankly etc. k. Words of expressions used just to introduce a sentence are left out: Well, very well, now, so etc. Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out Example: The teacher asked the children to listen to him. (now left out) l. A statement employing all the techniques: Well, very well, now, so etc. Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out Example: Direct Speech My neighbor said, “My guests arrived last evening. They are staying with us today. They will be leaving early tomorrow morning.” Indirect Speech My neighbor told me that her guests had arrived the previous evening and they were staying with them that day but they would be leaving early the following morning. Sentence with the same concept should be joined with ‘and’ but when there is a contract use ‘but’. II. QUESTIONS: a. The reporting verbs for questions are: Kind of Sentences Reporting Verbs Questions (1) W/H type asked, enquired, wanted to know Questions (2) Verbal asked, enquired, wanted Conjunctions if / whether b. Auxiliary questions should begin with: if / whether e.g: Direct Speech My friend said, “Are they coming with us?” Indirect Speech My friend asked me whether they were coming with us. Direct Speech I said, “Were they angry with you?” Indirect Speech I asked him whether they had been angry with him. Direct Speech Sarah said to her mother, “Can the milkman bringmilk in this heavy rain?” Indirect Speech Sarah asked her mother if the milkman could bring milk in that heavy rain. c. Do / Does / Did Questions: When using; do, does (present tense) - the main verb converts into the past (does / do go -> went) did (past tense) - the main verb converts into past perfect. (did go -> had gone) e.g: Direct Speech “Does David study late at night?” said Sonia. Indirect Speech Sonia asked me whether David studied late at night. Direct Speech Jems said,“Do college students use cellphones?” Indirect Speech Jems asked me whether college students used cellphones. d. The question form will change into a statement form: “Is he here?” Whether he was there e. W/h Questions: These questions begin with a question word (Who, What, When, Why, Where, How, How long ...). While changing such a question into reported form we do not use any conjunction. We simply invert the word order (Verb + Subject is changed into Subject + Verb). Do not use if/whether in W/h Questions. e.g: Verb + Subject She said to me, “What do you want?” Subject + Verb She asked me what I wanted. Direct Speech My neighbour said, “when did the men catch the stray dogs” Indirect Speech My neighbour asked me when the men had caught the stray dogs. Direct Speech My friend said, “Which colour will you choose?” Indirect Speech My fiend aksed me which colour I would choose? Direct Speech Father said to mother, “Why was Angelina cryingwhen she returned from school?” Indirect Speech father asked mother why Angelina had been crying when she had returned from school. f. Verbal Questions: These are questions begining with a verb. (Are you ready? Is it true?) Here we use the conjunction ‘if’ or ‘whether’. The word order is changed as mentioned earlier. e.g: Verb + Subject She said to me, “Is Tom at home?” Subject + Verb Sh asked me if Tom was at home. III. COMMANDS / ORDER / IMPERATIVE SENTENCES To report a command we can use a number of verbs Reporting Verb: Kind of Sentences Reporting Verbs Conjunctions Commands & Requests told, asked, requested, warned, advised, instructed, ordered to - not to We use the conjunction ‘to’. When the command is a negative one beginning with “Don’t” we change it to ‘not to’. e.g: Direct Speech The Captain said, “Get ready to board the ship.” Indirect Speech The Captain commanded his sailors to get ready to board the ship. Direct Speech Teacher said to Jems, “Get out” Indirect Speech Teacher told Jems to get out. Direct Speech The Judge said to the culprit, “Tell me the truth.” Indirect Speech The Judge ordered the culprit to tell the truth. Direct Speech Headmaster said to the students, “Don’t copy in the examination”. Indirect Speech Headmaster asked the students not to copy in the examination. Requests: Please - requested + whom + to + v Direct Speech The teacher said, “Please improve your knowledge.” Indirect Speech The teacher requested the student to improve his knowledge. Direct Speech Robert said to me, “Please post these letters”. Indirect Speech Robert requested me to post those letters. Direct Speech Mother said, “Please keep your room neat.” Indirect Speech Mother requested me to keep my room neat. Exclamations Exclamations can be reported with adverbs of manner. Kind of Sentences Reporting Verbs Conjunctions Exclamations exclaimed with joy / exclaimed with sorrow that a) Reporting Verb: exclaimed with (emotion) b) The exclamation should be changed into a statement. c) Use suitable emotions to the exclamation. Direct Speech Rosy said to David, “How wonderfully you sang!” Indirect Speech Rosy exclaimed with happiness that David had sung wonderfully. Direct Speech The foreigner said, “What a man Obama is!.” Indirect Speech The foreigner exclaimed in wonder that Obama wasa great man. Direct Speech John said, “That I should see you here!” Indirect Speech John was surprised to see me there. Alas!- exclaimed with sadness / regret / disappoinment. Direct Speech The reporter said, “Alas! Many lives have been lostdue to tsunami” Indirect Speech The reporter exclaimed sadly that many lives had been lost due to tsunami. May you!- blesses / wished. Direct Speech The grandmother said, “May you meet with success wherever you go” Indirect Speech The grandmother blessed her grandson that he should meet with success wherever he goes. Don’t / never - warned or forbade. (when using forbid do not use negatives) Direct Speech Father said, “Shakshi, don’t play in dirty water!” Indirect Speech Father forbade his daughter Sakshi to play in dirty water. O God! - called upon God with regret / sadness / disappointment. Direct Speech The beggar said, “O God! I have been cheated”. Indirect Speech The beggar called upon God with regret that he had been cheated. DEFINITION OF SYLLABIFICATION Syllabification Definition: Syllabification has SIX types, they are : 1.Monosyllabic 2.Disyllabic (or) Bisyllabic 3.Trisyllabic 4.Terasyllabic 5.Pentasyllabic 6.Polysyllabic (or) Multisyllabic But the basic syllabifications are Mono-syllabic, Di-syllabic and Polysyllabic. Sometimes we must break a word at the end of a line. Avoi d doing so whenever possible; especially avoid breaking two successive lines. When breaking a word is unavoidable, mark the division with a hyp hen (made with one stroke on the typewriter[-]). It is splitting of words according to the syllables or units of sounds or vowel sounds. e.g leader lead-er countrymen count-ry-men rejoice re-joice universal u-ni-ver-sal survival sur-vi-val What is Monosyllabic Word: Words having only one syllable. e.g act cat book slew base vile oft cause crown mourn worse fear head riot sword tongue plot steel wish one school break rhythm make act see all at ball bat bet sweep life What is Disyllabic (or) Bisyllabic Word : Words having only two syllables. e.g cen-sure sen-se va-liant in-terred grie-vous cae-sar cap-tives ran-soms be-side dec-tate wo-men cri-tic in-stead de-lay a-gain edu-cate pro-gramme van-quish se-nate de-bate dor-mant out-break mo-ral dir-rect co-ward en-ding care-ful de-vil dia-mond co-ward sus-pect deep-est pur-pose What is Trisyllabic Word : Words having only three syllables. e.g beau-ti-ful to-mor-row po-pu-lar in-ten-tion lu-per-vcal lu-per-cal mu-ti-ny le-ga-cy tes-ta-ment be-lo-ved me-mo-ry un-kind-ly tes-ta-ment be-lo-ved tri-um-virs for-tu-nate vic-to-ries o-ra-tion coun-try-men be-ne-fit as-sem-bly con-si-der e-le-ment tra-di-tion im-pli-cit per-mi-ssion ex-periment e-ffec-tive in-jus-tice com-pa-nion ar-ma-ment What is Polysyllabic Word : Words having four or more syllables. e.g in-tel-ligent in-i-ti-at-ve fun-da-men- in-fe-ri-o-ri- per-so-ni-fi-ca-tion syl-la-bi-fi-ca-tion tal-ly ty

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