* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download AP Exam Study Overview (Without Rotational Dynamics)
Gibbs free energy wikipedia , lookup
Classical mechanics wikipedia , lookup
Woodward effect wikipedia , lookup
Weightlessness wikipedia , lookup
Internal energy wikipedia , lookup
Newton's laws of motion wikipedia , lookup
Speed of gravity wikipedia , lookup
Potential energy wikipedia , lookup
Casimir effect wikipedia , lookup
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation wikipedia , lookup
Electric charge wikipedia , lookup
Equations of motion wikipedia , lookup
Conservation of energy wikipedia , lookup
Anti-gravity wikipedia , lookup
Electromagnetism wikipedia , lookup
Lorentz force wikipedia , lookup
Time in physics wikipedia , lookup
Electrostatics wikipedia , lookup
Advanced Placement Physics Physics Overview The following equations and facts are not given on the exam, but are essential for your success. v x t v 2 r T g G mAvAi mBvBi mAvA f mBvB f mAvAi mB vB i mA mB vAB f 1 1 mghi mv 2i mgh f mv 2 f 2 2 mghtop 1 2 mv bottom 2 m r2 mA mB vABi mAvA f mB vB f 1 2 1 2 kx mv 2 2 Klost / dissipated K i K f qV 1 2 mv 2 And any combination of Work Energy Theorem and Conservation of Energy that might be applicable to the problem. Work is the area under Force distance. Series circuits: current stays the same Parallel circuits: current adds Ek q r2 V Ir (when there is internal resistance) Study Guide and Review Series circuits: voltage adds P I 2R Parallel circuits: voltage stays the same P V2 R Right Hand Rule A changing flux induces a current in a wire. The direction of the current is the opposite that specified by the right hand rule. The current induced in the wire generates its own magnetic field, which is opposite to the field that caused the emf. Physics Overview 1 Energy Overview Energy is a central concept that connects the various strands of physics. Through the Work Energy Theorem and the Principle of Conservation of Energy a host of equations and possibilities help generate solutions. Work Energy Theorem Total work equals the change in kinetic energy Newtonian Mechanics 1 K mv 2 2 Us Work, in the center, is equal to any change in energy around the circle. For example: U g mgh 1 2 kx 2 Ug Gm1m2 r 1 2 m v 2 F d cos W U g mg h so F d cos mg h W U E qV so F d cos qV Conservation of Energy Energy can change forms W F d cos U= ½ LI2 Total Energyi Total Energy f Any energy around the circle can change into another energy around the circle. For example: 1 2 m v mg h 2 qV U E qV Uc 1 QV 2 1 2 m v 2 so W K 1 U c CV 2 2 1 2 m v 2 so 1 1 mghi mv 2i mgh f mv 2 f 2 2 A charge accelerated by charged plates Electricity & Magnetism Power: If work and energy are important, then any variable that has work / energy in its equation is equally important. Power is the rate that work is done or that energy is delivered, expended, or used. So from power we can get work and energy, and from work and energy we can get power. One easy way is to set time to 1.0 s. Then power and work / energy have the same value, but different units. If you find the time later in the problem just multiply or divide by the time to solve as necessary. Study Guide and Review Physics Overview 2 MOTION OF A SINGLE OBJECT: Relevant Kinematics, Force, and Energy Start a problem by asking “What is the object doing?”, then “What is causing it to do that?”. What direction is it moving in (if two find x and y components)? Is it moving at constant v (this includes v = 0)? Is it accelerating? Force? Energy change? See if energy solves the problem first. Then think force and kinematics. Most common usage is boxed. But, the most common usage is often a special case. Knowing the overall equations and logic will allow you to solve any scenario. Situation Kinematics Constant Velocity FN v v Fg Need constant velocity Energy F 0 x t Forces are vertical, while motion is horizontal or d or x Force Always think sum of force Fg mg x vt FN mg cos Inertia only. No force. No energy needed. W F d cos W F d cos 90o Where is the angle between F and d vectors. W 0 0o slope FN mg Use Kinematic Equations Accelerating in x FN a Fret Fg vx vo x at F ma vx vo x 2a x xo Fx Fp x Fretarding x 2 FP d or x There is a sum of force 2 1 x xo vo xt at 2 2 example Fx Fp x Ffr In projectile motion v y vo y 2 g y yo Fret 2 2 y yo vo y t g Fy Fg Fretarding y v y vo y gt h or y Fg Horizontal projectile or dropped object y Study Guide and Review 1 2 gt 2 1 2 gt 2 Wx Fx d cos Where is the angle between F and d vectors. W F d cos 0o No retarding forces present W F d This time work is done, so there is a energy. W Energy W K x vo xt Accelerating in y A force through a distance. example Fy Fg Fair resistance 1 2 m v The only thing changing is velocity, so K is changing. 2 Wy Fy h Includes retarding forces W Fg h No retarding forces W U g mg h Height is changing, so U is changing. W K mg h Physics Overview 1 2 m v Velocity is changing, so K is changing. 2 1 2 m v 2 1 1 mghi mv 2i mgh f mv 2 f Energy conserved. 2 2 3 Situation Kinematics Kinematic Equations Apply Inclines a y vx vo x 2a x xo 2 2 1 x xo vo xt at 2 2 x Fret vx vo x at FN vy vo y gt v y vo y 2 g y yo 2 Fg 2 y yo vo y t Down a curve Steep slope, large a Less steep, a decreaseing 1 2 gt 2 Force Energy Motion is parallel to slope Work and energy can work parallel, in the x, and in the y Acceleration down the slope is caused by the addition of Fg and FN. The resultant of these two vectors is Fgsin. Since the natural motion is down the slope set that direction as +. In some problems it is useful to reverse this (if the object is going up hill). W F d Force and distance vectors form similar triangles. W Fx d x W Fy d y Work depends on F and d being parallel. F Fg sin Fretarding FN mg cos Kinematics Fail Force Fails The net force is changing as the vectors Fg and FN change. In addition the direction is changing. The net force is changing as the vectors Fg and FN change. W K Pendulum or Swing R y x h h R y y R x R cos 2 2 mg h Study Guide and Review 1 2 m v 2 1 1 mghi mv 2i mgh f mv 2 f 2 2 Energy is directionless. W K 1 2 m v 2 W U g mg h mg h The Kinematic Equations are designed for changing velocity, but only work for uniform (constant) acceleration. 1 2 m v 2 1 1 mghi mv 2i mgh f mv 2 f 2 2 A very important case. mghtop Kinematics Fail Force Fails See accelerating down a curve above. See accelerating down a curve above. The velocity is zero at either end. The restoring force is greatest at the ends, as is the acceleration. The velocity is greatest at the lowest point 1 2 m v 2 W U g mg h Acceleration is changing. a=0 constant velocity from this point on So any pair of parallel vector will solve the problem 1 2 mv bottom 2 No initial velocity moving to a height of zero. Energy is directionless. W K 1 2 m v 2 W U g mg h The restoring force is zero in the middle, and so is the acceleration. Physics Overview mghtop 1 2 mv bottom If it has no initial velocity and goes all the way down. 2 At the ends it is all potential no motion, in the middle it is all motion no potential. 4 Situation Kinematics Object on string, Vertical loop v FT Center seeking. Unlike previous scenarios, the object definitely has velocity at the top. Instantaneous velocity is tangent to the circlular motion. Force is centripetal, Fc, is the sum of force in circular motion. Toward center is +. There is a height difference from top to bottom, but the object has speed at the top as well. And the bottom may not necessarily be the lowest point in the problem 2 r T Acceleration is toward center, centripetal. ac Object on string, Horizontal loop FT Fg FT Object turning on flat surface Ffr Fg Roller Coaster v r Fc FT Fg Find tension at the bottom. Fc FT Fg Center seeking. No work is done Instantaneous velocity is tangent to the circlular motion. Force is centripetal, Fc, is the sum of force in circular motion. Toward center is +. W F d cos W F d cos 90o 2 r T Acceleration is toward center, centripetal. ac Fc 2 1 1 2 2 mghtop i mvtop i mghbottom f mvbottom f 2 2 Find tension at the top. Tangential Velocity v Fg Energy Tangential Velocity v ac Force 2 r T ac FT Fc Fg 2 2 v2 r Tangential Velocity v Find Fc by adding vectors (tip to tail). Then solve for FT. 2 Why is there circular motion? Object not sliding off disk, or car turning on a road. Where is the angle between F and d vectors. W 0 At any instant the direction of motion (tangent to the circle) is perpendicular to the center seeking Fc, the FT, and the Fg. And for one revolution there is no total displacement from the origin, since a single revolution brings you back to the starting point. No work is done See above. Fc Ffr v r Need uniform slope Force centripetal in the loop. Energy works everywhere, with its directionless advantage. Kinematics only work on sections that have constant slope. To find the speed needed to have passengers feel weightless at the top of the loop You can solve for any point A using any other point B. Use the complete equation. The car will usually have both speed and height at every point. An exception is the lowest point on the track, or if it starts with zero velocity at the top of a hill (this is unlikely since roller-coasters don’t stop at the top of each hill). If it has velocity and height at the top you need to include both. If the track is curved try energy. Fc Fg 1 1 2 2 mghA mvA mghB mvB 2 2 Study Guide and Review Physics Overview 5 Situation Spring -x x=0 +x m m Kinematics Force Force Fails See Down a curve, and Pendulum above. See Down a curve, and Pendulum above. W K The velocity is zero at maximum +/- x (amplitude) The restoring force is greatest at maximum +/- x (amplitude). W U S The velocity is greatest at x=0 The restoring force is zero at x = 0, and so is the acceleration. Potential difference. The force of the electric field m Particle accelerated by electric field v Energy is directionless. Positive charges go in the opposite direction. It acts like a projectile x vx o t y Charged particle in a magnetic field Path curved by field. 2 r T ac v2 r 1 2 k x 2 If it starts at maximum x (amplitude) and it converts all the springs energy into speed of the object pushed / pulled by the spring 1 2 1 2 kx mv 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 kx i mv i kx f mv 2 f 2 2 2 2 Electromagnetism: New forms of energy, but energy is still conserved. W K 1 2 mv 2 W U E qV qV 1 2 mv 2 1 1 qVi mv 2i qV f mv 2 f 2 2 Electric field is perpendicular Work is done in the direction of the electric field. Particle is forced toward the plate with opposite sign. W F d F q F qE F ma ma qE E Forced to center by field. If the field is large enough the particle will follow a circular path. v Study Guide and Review 1 2 at get a from F 2 1 2 m v 2 W Energy F qE Velocity increases. But, + particles are more massive, don’t accelerate as quickly, and have lower final velocities. Charged particle parallel to plates Energy Kinematics Fail W qE d No work is done Fc FB W F d cos 90o v2 m qvB r W 0 At any instant the direction of motion (tangent to the circle) is perpendicular to the center seeking Fc, and the FB. Physics Overview 6 Collisions Circular Motion Momentum is always conserved in a collision The key to circular motion is to ask: “What is causing it to stay in a circle?” Know the following equations mAvAi mBvBi mAvA f mBvB f 2 objects before, 2 objects after Centripetal means center seeking mAvAi mB vB i mA mB vAB f 2 objects before, 1 objects after The direction of motion is toward the center mA mB vABi mAvA f mBvB f 1 objects before, 2 objects after If there are more than two objects add Any force pointing to the center is a positive force. Any force pointing away from the center is a negative force. Force Centripetal is the sum of forces in these problems mC vC , mD vD , etc. If the collisions happen in two dimensions, x and y, turn all mv vectors into x and y components. Solve for the result in the x direction and then solve for the result in the y direction. Take the final x and y and use Pythagorean Theorem to find the overall resultants. If the object has momentum it also has kinetic energy. Total energy is also conserved, but energy changes forms. Perfectly elastic collision (An idealized unrealistic case) It is not drawn on free body diagrams since it is the net force. Any force (gravity, tension, friction, normal, magnetic, etc.) can contribute to Fc Possible equations Fc Fg To find minimum speed at the top of a roller coaster loop. Fc Ffr Object is revolving on a horizontal surface, or a car turning. Fc FT If a (horizontal) string spins the object in a horizontal circle. Fc FT Fg 2 Kinetic energy is conserved in this rare case. Use these two equations together (System of 2 equations & 2 varibles). mAvAi mBvBi mAvA f mBvB f 1 1 1 1 2 2 mAv A i mB vB i mAvA 2 f mB vB 2 f 2 2 2 2 Inelastic Collision (The common type) Kinetic energy is lost or dissipated. 2 If an object at the end of a string is spinning through the air Fc FT Fg and gravity pulls the string down from the horizontal. An object (at the top) spinning at the end of a string in a Fc FT Fg vertical circle. An object (at the bottom) spinning at the end of a string in a Fc FN vertical circle. Inside an amusement park ride (Gravitron) Fc FB For a charged particle in a magnetic field. There is less kinetic energy after the collision. Substitute and solve. Klost / dissipated K i K f v2 r Velocity is Tangential (Note this is the opposite of change in kinetic energy. Change in kinetic energy is Kf – Ki. The value is the same, but the sign is reversed.) 1 1 1 2 2 1 Klost / dissipated mAv A i mB vB i mAv A 2 f mB vB 2 f 2 2 2 2 The kinetic energy lost often turns into heat from the impact K lost / dissipated mcT Study Guide and Review Fc m The instantaneous velocity is tangent to the circular motion. v 2 r T T is the period, the time for one revolution. If the object is released (the force stops working) then the object will move at this velocity in a direction tangent to the circle at the time of the release. Physics Overview 7 Rates and Graphing Rates and Graphing A change in a variable as a function of time (in seconds). In the graphed examples the y intercepts and slopes would depend on where the problem started and on how fast the rate is changing. d (or v = dx/dt) t Velocity is the slope (derivative) of distance time graph v v v0 v Constant Velocity: change in position d d t d t Acceleration: a v (or a = dv/dt) t Distance increases (or decreases) in an exponential manner. a a d d t t Acceleration is the slope (derivative) of velocity time graph a a v Q (or I = dQ/dt) t Current stays the same in a series circuit. All the resistors are in line. It’s like a traffic jam on one road with no alternate routes. All the cars are going the same speed on the entire road, so the amount of cars passing any point in a certain time interval is the same everywhere. Current adds in a parallel circuit. The electrons have multiple pathways to choose from. If 100 C arrive at a fork in the circuit they must split up. Due to conservation of charge, the amount of electrons in the parallel paths must add up to the amount of electrons arriving at the fork. emf: change in flux (magnetic field thru an area) (or ε = -dΦ/dt) t Remember, current can only be generated by a changing flux. So a closed loop of wire must move through the field, or the loop must be getting larger, or the loop must be rotating. Loop moved thru Bar moved, enlarging loop Loop rotates v t W (or P = dW/dt) t Remember you can convert directly to work (or energy) from power if you solve the problem using 1 second for time. (Example: 100 W, means 100 J in one second). If you get information about time later in the problem, just multiply by the amount of time to find the actual total work (or energy). Example: If the proceeding 100 W was delivered for 1 minute, then 100 J were delivered each second for 60 s. So 6000 J of work (energy) was done, used, or delivered. Current: charge moving through a point in a circuit I t change in velocity Power: Work (and any form of energy) done in a time t P t Areas Under Curves Velocity is the area (integral) under the acceleration graph. Displacement is the area (integral) under the velocity graph. B A cos t B v B A cos t *** Work is the area under the force distance curve. t t Study Guide and Review Physics Overview t 8 Capacitors Graphs of exponential decays: C = Q/V Capacitance (measured in Farads) depends only on geometry/shape Capacitors store charge and energy Energy Stored: U = ½ CV2 = ½ QV = ½ Q2/C Voltage across a capacitor in circuit: Q/C (so like a wire when uncharged) Combinations of Capacitors: (Series) 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + …. (decreases capacitance) (Parallel) Ceq = C1 + C2 + …. (increases capacitance) Dielectrics: k is the dielectric constant; dielectrics decrease the electric field and voltage (at a given Q) and therefore increase capacitance by the factor of k Parallel Plate Capcitor: C = kεA/d Graphs of exponential increase (Q during charging): Charging a capacitor in an RC circuit: The charge on the capacitor increases exponentially and the current to it decreases exponentially, usually according to equations like, Q(t) = Qmax(1-e-t/RC) I(t) = dQ/dt = I0e-t/RC When fully charged, current quits flowing to it Discharging a capacitor in an RC circuit: The charge on the capacitor decreases exponentially and the current decreases exponentially, usually according to equations like, Q(t) = Q0e-t/RC I(t) = -dQ/dt = I0e-t/RC Ampere’s Law Inductors Voltage: LdI/dt (usually a drop in voltage, so subtract) Energy: U = ½ LI2 Current through inductor cannot change instantly At steady-state, acts like wire (no voltage) L-R circuits (current grows): I(t) = Imaxe-Rt/L L-C circuits (current oscillates; charge on capacitor oscillates; current max when Q = 0; Q max when I = 0) Study Guide and Review §Bdl = µ0Ienclosed Biot-Savart dB = (µ/4π) (I dl x r)/r3 (note: dl and r on top are vectors; this is inverse square law with r; can be written with just direction of r (r “hat”) on top, then r squared is on bottom) Physics Overview 9 1. Charge a. Fundamental charge is e = 1.602 x 10-19 C (electron charge = -e) b. Continuous charge densities: i. λ = charge per length (e.g., C/m) ii. σ = charge per area (e.g., C/m 2) iii. ρ = charge per volume (e.g., C/m 3) 2. Coulomb’s Law for force between point charges a. F = kq1q2/r2 (this is a vector; direction: like charges repel; opposites attract) i. k = 8.99 x 109 Nm2/C2 = 1/4πε0 ii. ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2 = 1/4πk b. For net force on a single charge Q due to multiple charges, sum the forces due to each individual charge (but do it by component since vector quantities) 2 Discrete: ∑kQqi/ri2 i Continuous: 3. Electric field a. Due to a point charge q at a point a distance r away: E = kq/r2 (this is a vector; direction is away from positive charges & toward negative ones) b. For the total E field due to multiple charges, sum the E field vectors due to each individual charge (but do it by component since vector quantities) 2 Discrete: ∑kqi/ri2 i Continuous: 4. Electric field lines a. Point away from positive charges and toward negative ones b. The density of the lines is proportional to the strength of the E field c. Direction of the field lines is the same as the direction of the E field d. Lines start on + or at infinity and end on – or at infinity e. The number of fields lines starting on a + charge or ending on a – charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge Field lines are radial as the approach a point charge; at large distances, they are again approximately radial, but now they point toward/away from the approximate center of the charges 5. Electric Flux/Gauss’s Law a. Electric Flux = φ = surface, reduces to EA) (if E is constant & perpendicular to b. Electric Flux over a closed surface φ c. Gauss’s Law: Electric flux over a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface divided by ε0 (or multiplied by 4πk) i. φ = Qinside/ε0 = 4πkQinside ii. Only charges enclosed by a surface contribute to the net flux through it Study Guide and Review 6. Conductors d. Any net charge is located on the surface of a conductor; the charge density on the interior of a conductor is zero everywhere e. The electric field is zero everyone on the inside of a conductor i. The electric field on the surface of a conductor points perpendicular to the surface and has a value given by, E = σ/ε0 f. If a conductor has a hollow region, the total charge on the inner surface of the hollow region will be the opposite of the total charge inside the hollow region g. Shielding: i. Charges on the outer surface of a conductor arrange themselves so as to create an electric field inside of the conductor that cancels out any electric field external to the conductor. ii. Charges on the inner surface of a hollow region of a conductor arrange themselves so as to create an electric field outside of the hollow that cancels out any electric field due to the charges in the hollow region. 1. So the field inside a hollow region depends only on the inner surface charge and any charges in the hollow region iii. Faraday’s cage: Inside a hollow conductor (with no enclosed charges in the hollow region), the electric field will be zero. h. The electric potential (V) is the same everywhere in a conductor 7. Electric Potential (V) (NOTE: This is a scalar; energy per charge) i. Discrete: ∑kqi/rii Continuous: ii. E = -dV/dx or ΔV = -SEdl 8. Specifics you should know (both the result and how to find them) i. E of an infinite line of charge: E(r) = 2kλ/r (radial in direction) j. E of an infinite plane of charge: E = σ/2ε0 (perpendicular to plane) k. For a uniform spherical shell of radius R of charge: i. E(r) = 0, V = kQ/R (inside shell) ii. E = kq/r2 and V = kQ/r (outside shell) l. For a uniform, solid sphere of total charge Q and radius R: i. E(r) = kQ/r2 and V = kQ/r (outside of sphere) ii. E(r) = kQinside/r2 = kQr/R3 (inside of sphere) m. E of a uniform, hollow cylinder of total charge Q and radius R i. E(r) = 2kλ/r in the radial direction (outside of the cylinder) ii. E = 0 (inside of the cylinder) iii. Solid cylinder: use Gauss’s Law with cylinders as surfaces n. There is a discontinuity in the perpendicular component of E field on either side of a surface charge of density σ given by, |ΔE| = σ/ε 0 Physics Overview 10 Study Guide and Review Physics Overview 11