Download Nuclear Factfile - Centre for Alternative Technology

Nuclear Factfile
Key points





Nuclear provides about 10% of world electricity
The UK has 16 reactors (on 9 sites) generating about 18% of UK electricity. Most of
these will be closed by 2030. Building more nuclear capacity is proposed.
Nuclear power stations use Uranium but other fuels may be used in the future
The length of time that world Uranium stocks will last depends on the number, size and
type of power station used, as well as the methods used to obtain Uranium.
Safe storage of nuclear waste is a very long term challenge
Background information




Nuclear energy means energy from the nucleus (core) of an atom.
There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold the nucleus together.
Energy is released when those bonds are broken
Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity (by heating water to make steam to drive
a turbine), but first the energy must be released.
It can be released in two ways:
 nuclear fission and
 nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission
 Large atoms are split into smaller atoms, releasing energy. The heat from this energy is
used to drive turbines to produce electricity, usually using uranium as the fuel.
Nuclear fusion
 Energy is released when atoms are fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the
sun makes energy.
 Fusion is the subject of ongoing research, but it is uncertain whether it will ever be a
commercially viable technology for electricity generation [1].
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 1
Current use in world and UK
The World
Nuclear provides about
 5% of global primary energy consumption
 10% of the world’s electricity.
 About 440 nuclear power units worldwide, with a combined power output of 375
gigawatts (GW).
 After increasing steadily since the 1960’s, nuclear power generation has declined slightly
in recent years [2].
 The largest producer of electricity using nuclear power is the United States, which has
100 nuclear power stations.
 France gets the largest percentage of its electricity from nuclear power (about 75% of its
electricity) [3].
Britain
 The UK has 16 nuclear reactors at 9 sites around the country.
 These nuclear power stations provide around 18% of UK electricity.
 Most of the current 9 GW of nuclear power generation are due to close between 2018
and 2023.
 The nuclear industry has plans to develop around 16 GW of new nuclear power [4,5].
Climate change & Impact on nature
Climate Change
Releasing and using nuclear energy does not emit any greenhouse gases directly.
However, some greenhouse gases are emitted in the
 construction,
 operation (including the mining of fuel),
 decommissioning (taking down once no longer used) of nuclear power stations
 storing nuclear waste
Lifecycle emissions are estimated at about
20 grams of CO2 or equivalent greenhouse gas per kilowatt-hour (gCO2e/kWh),
although the figure varies quite a lot between different studies. Emissions from mining
and processing of uranium ore are a large part of total lifecycle emissions [6,7].
Other Environmental Impacts
 Mining and processing of the uranium ore causes other environmental impacts.
 Uranium ore is mostly mined using conventional mining techniques at either
underground or open pit mines.
 At these mines the uranium ore is crushed into fine powder. This is then reacted with
chemicals to separate the uranium from other minerals.
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 2



The waste stream produced from these operations are called "mill tailings”. Most mill
tailings, which have a low level of radioactivity, are placed near the processing facility or
mill where they come from, and are covered with clay and earth [1].
Most uranium is in a few countries such as Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, USA, South
Africa and Namibia [17]. These countries must deal with the environmental damage from
the Uranium mining.
In the event of an accident, highly radioactive material can be spread into the
environment, such as occurred in the area around Chernobyl. The accident has made
the area uninhabitable for humans for thousands of years. The exclusion zone covers
2,600 km2. Without humans around, wildlife has increased, although there is a debate
around the impact of radiation on biodiversity and the health of the ecosystem [8].
Chernobyl Power station
after the accident in 1986
Risks




When operating correctly, nuclear power has little impact on human health, as it
produces no air pollution.
There is some risk in mining uranium and in building and operating nuclear plants.
These risks are quite low for the amount of energy produced. Good ventilation is
required at underground Uranium mines to reduce the risk from radon gas.
Some studies conclude that nuclear power causes very few deaths per unit of energy
produced compared with other sources of energy [9,10].
Nuclear accidents are rare but they can be very serious, from loss of life to the disruption
and distress caused by the forced evacuation of large areas.
Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986
The worst nuclear accident to date was at Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986.
A World Health Organization study found that the death toll included 47 workers who died of
acute radiation syndrome, nine children who died from thyroid cancer, and an estimated 9,00033,000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation [11,20].
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 3
Fukushima, Japan 2011
Another major nuclear accident occurred at Fukushima in Japan in 2011, when an earthquake
and tsunami struck the area.
Radiation was released into the surrounding area and around 300,000 people were evacuated.
No deaths are as yet reported, however, increased risks of cancer are expected for people who
were exposed [12].
Fukushima water contamination
Fukushima fallout map




There have been also been accidents resulting in releases of radioactive material in the
USA, France, UK and others.
There is a risk that the use of nuclear power could aid the increase of nuclear weapons.
Plutonium is a by-product of conventional power station reactors and is a key ingredient
in nuclear weapons
Sellafield in North West England holds the world’s largest stocks of plutonium from
reactors. Much of this is stored in drums as plutonium dioxide powder, extracted from
spent fuel. This “poses a serious security risk” according to The Royal Society [26].
Plutonium inside spent fuel from nuclear reactors has a radioactive half-life of 24,100
years and needs to be kept isolated for thousands of years to protect humans and
wildlife.
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 4
Cost now and in the future






It is estimated that a new design of nuclear power station called a “European water
reactor”, if constructed now, could produce electricity at a cost of around 8 pence per
kWh.
This cost could fall to around 7 pence/kWh if the same designs are repeated in the future
[13,14].
In 2013, the UK government agreed to pay French nuclear company EDF a guaranteed
price of 9 pence/kWh for electricity produced by proposed new nuclear reactors at
Hinkley Point in Somerset and Sizewell in Suffolk [15].
The predicted costs of handling the UK’s existing nuclear waste is increasing rapidly,
already costing around £2.5 billion/year [16]. The UK Government (DECC) spent £7
billion managing Nuclear waste and decommissioning in 2010-11. [28]
The national Audit Office now predict that decommissioning Sellafield nuclear power
station will cost around £67 billion over about 100 years. In 2009 the prediction was £47
billion. There is concern that decommissioning costs for other power stations may be
underestimated [16].
The UK Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) has estimates of government funding
per site to cover lifetime costs including decommissioning [29]. A report in 2015 cites an
expectation of £70 billion for decommissioning.[27]
World and UK resource
Nuclear fission uses a fuel that will run out eventually.
World
 The use of nuclear power is limited by the availability of nuclear fuel and by the expertise
to safely build and operate nuclear power stations.
Reserves of uranium
 The global reserves of mineable uranium are around 4.7 million tonnes.
 A current 1 GW nuclear power station uses about 160 tonnes of uranium per year. If
nuclear power was maintained at current levels, the uranium reserves would last around
80 years.
 It is possible to extract uranium from phosphate rocks and even from seawater, which
would greatly increase the availability of uranium but also increase costs.
 So-called “fast breeder” nuclear reactors could possibly be used in future. These require
about 60 times less fuel than current “once through” nuclear reactors, and could also use
waste from current nuclear reactors as fuel. These reactors have been developed and
used in several countries but most have been shut down.
 New fast breeder reactors are proposed but there are remaining risks and uncertainties
over cost, safety and nuclear proliferation [22].
 Reactors using the nuclear fuel, thorium, could also be used in future (see below) [17].
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 5
Britain
 The UK has no deposits of uranium to mine, and is therefore dependent on imports.
 The UK does have a quantity of nuclear material left over from previous nuclear power
plants, which could be used as fuel in future ‘fast breeder’ reactors [18].
 The UK has considerable expertise in nuclear energy, but it is currently all foreign
companies that are proposing to build nuclear power stations in the UK [5].
Thorium
There is a growing interest in thorium-based nuclear power.
 It is a safer material to use
 There is far more of it. Thorium is about 3 times as abundant as uranium.
 The reactors use much less ‘fuel’ than standard current uranium reactors.
 They produce less nuclear waste and shorter lived nuclear waste that will be dangerous
for 400-500 years, compared with tens of thousands of years for waste from
conventional uranium reactors.
Many countries are researching thorium technology and India is nearing the completion of a
thorium reactor [21,17 p166, 23].
Reliability/Flexibility







Nuclear power usually works as planned and is a reliable way to produce electricity.
If a malfunction or accident occurs, output from the power station can be completely lost.
If a major accident occurs this can damage public confidence in nuclear power and
remove public support for the technology. This happened in Japan after the Fukushima
accident and nearly all of their nuclear power stations have been shut down [12].
It is not possible to turn nuclear power stations on and off as needed to match demand.
Nuclear power can provide electricity somewhat flexibly. This does not occur in the UK,
where nuclear power stations operate at a nearly constant level and other sources of
power respond to the changes in electricity demand.
It is also possible to shift electricity demand to better match the output from nuclear, for
example, by encouraging the use of electricity at night in storage heaters.
In France, where the percentage of electricity from nuclear is much higher, nuclear
power stations do alter their output to match electricity demand. This involves reducing
the energy output and is only possible for around the first two-thirds of the nuclear fuel
cycle. Reducing the electricity output in this way reduces the nuclear plant’s efficiency
and increases the cost of electricity per unit [19].
Wales
There is one nuclear power station operating in Wales at Wylfa on Ynys Mon which generates
up to 980 MW. It is now reaching the end of its life and a new one is planned on the same site.
A second one operated at Trawsfynydd between 1968 and 1991. Its decommissioning process
will go on until 2083.
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 6
Trawsfynydd
Nuclear Power
Station,
Gwynedd
A replacement for the existing power station at Wylfa is planned, despite objections and at least
three international companies pulling out of undertaking the project on the grounds of expense
& unsatisfactory profit forecasts. The plant will have two Advanced Boiling Water Reactors
(ABWRs) which the owners say will generate 2,700MW. It will be working from about 2023-4.
Wylfa
Nuclear Power
Station,
Ynys Mon
The contribution from nuclear power fell in Wales in 2010 before rising again in 2011 to just
under 20% of all electricity generated. [25] There are no deposits of uranium to mine in Wales, it
is imported from elsewhere.
References
[1] EIA (2013). Nuclear Explained. United States Energy Information Administration.
www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=nuclear_home [accessed 17/1/2014].
[2] BP (2013). BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2013. BP.
www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy2013.html [accessed 8/1/2014].
[3] NEI (undated). World Statistics: Nuclear Energy Around the World. Nuclear Energy Institute.
www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics [accessed 17/1/2014].
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 7
[4] DECC (2013). Statistics at DECC. Department for Energy and Climate Change.
https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-of-energy-climate-change/about/statistics
[accessed 8/1/2014].
[5] DECC (2013). Increasing the use of low-carbon technologies: New nuclear power stations.
Department for Energy and Climate Change. https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/increasing-the-useof-low-carbon-technologies/supporting-pages/new-nuclear-power-stations [accessed 17/1/2014].
[6] CCC (2013). Reducing the UK’s carbon footprint and managing competitiveness risks. The Committe
on Climate Change. www.theccc.org.uk/publication/carbon-footprint-and-competitiveness/ [accessed
17/1/2014].
[7] OpenEI (undated). LCA Harmonization. OpenEI. http://en.openei.org/apps/LCA/ [accessed 17/1/2014].
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster
[9] Starfelt, N. and Wikdahl, C (undated). Economic Analysis of Various Options of Electricity Generation Taking into Account Health and Environmental Effects.
http://manhaz.cyf.gov.pl/manhaz/strona_konferencja_EAE-2001/15%20-%20Polenp~1.pdf [accessed
14/1/2014].
[10] Unnamed (undated). Deaths per TWh for all energy sources.
http://nextbigfuture.com/2008/03/deaths-per-twh-for-all-energy-sources.html [accessed 14/1/2014].
[11] WHO (2006). World Health Organization report explains the health impacts of the world's worst-ever
civil nuclear accident. World Health Organization.
www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr20/en/index.html [accessed 14/1/2014].
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster
[13] CCC (2010). The Fourth Carbon Budget – reducing emissions through the 2020s. The Committee on
Climate Change. www.theccc.org.uk/publication/the-fourth-carbon-budget-reducing-emissions-throughthe-2020s-2/ [accessed 9/1/2014].
[14] DECC (2012). Electricity Generation Costs. Department for Energy and Climate Change.
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/65713/6883-electricitygeneration-costs.pdf [accessed 9/1/2014].
[15] BBC (2013). Q&A: Nuclear strike price. BBC News. www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22772441
[accessed 20/1/2014].
[16] Clark, D. (2012). How much do we spend on nuclear waste?
www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/16/nuclear-waste-sellafield [accessed 20/1/2014].
[17] Mackay, D. (2013). Sustainable Energy – without the hot air. www.withouthotair.com [accessed
20/1/2014].
[18] Clark, D. (2012). New generation of nuclear reactors could consume radioactive waste as fuel?
www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/feb/02/nuclear-reactors-consume-radioactive-waste [accessed
20/1/2014].
[19] WNA (2013). Nuclear Power in France. World Nuclear Association. www.worldnuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-A-F/France/ [accessed 20/1/2014].
[20] IPCC (2011). IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/ [accessed 21/1/2014].
[21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power [accessed 21/3/2014].
[22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder_reactor [accessed 26/3/2014].
[23] BBC (2013). Thorium backed as a 'future fuel'. BBC News. www.bbc.co.uk/news/scienceenvironment-24638816 [accessed 26/3/2014].
[24] Photograph and article about WylfaNewydd:
http://www.energylivenews.com/2014/09/15/wylfa-nuclear-public-consultation-set-out/
[25] December 2012 Electricity generation and supply figures for Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and
England, 2008 to 2011 From (DUKES) 2012
[26] https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2007/8018.pdf
[27] The Institute of fiscal Studies Feb 2015 www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/gb/gb2015/gb2015.pdf p 141
[28] www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/oct/26/government-spending-department-2010-11
[29] www.nda.gov.uk/what-we-do/costs/#estimate-lifetime-costs-per-site
– background information for Energy Trumps cards. Full resource available as free download at
http://learning.cat.org.uk/en/resources
Nuclear Factfile, Centre for Alternative Technology 2015
Page 8