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Chapter 2: Developing Reading Vocabulary
2
Developing Reading Vocabulary
Vocabulary development is crucial to the development of effective and efficient reading. By
vocabulary is meant “the ability to recognize individual words and to associate meaning with the
particular combination of letters that form a word.”
Words are symbols: they are group of letters that stand for, or represent, either a physical
object or an idea. The word table can call to our minds a physical reality—an object with a flat plane
surface, usually supported by means of four perpendicular legs, and commonly used for holding
objects or for eating dinner. The word love, on the other hand, does not represent a physical object; it
symbolizes the feeling of one person toward another. The combination of the letters t-a-b-l-e or l-o-ve has no real meaning in itself; it is only when the combination of letters is associated with a
particular object or idea that it becomes meaningful. Take, for example, hoglag; you can read it, you
can pronounce it, but it has no meaning for you. You have not built up any associations between this
combination of letters and a physical object or idea. The major task involved in building vocabulary,
then, is to increase the number of associations as you can make between words (combinations of
letters) and the physical objects or ideas they stand for.
The number of word-meaning associations you have acquired defines your vocabulary level.
Adult vocabulary levels vary greatly—some adults are functionally literate; others have attained an
amazing mastery of words and their meanings. Richards1 states that an adult keeps on enriching his
vocabulary through reading, occupations and other activities. He estimates that the average child
enters elementary school with a recognition vocabulary of 2000 words. At seven, he has probably
reached some 7000 words, and by fourteen, he might have recognized 14,000 words. A college
student is estimated to understand around 60,000-100,000 words. An important insight we can get
from this statistical figure is that the size of your vocabulary reflects your education, reading, range
of interests, and professional success. Realizing this, it is a must for you to strive to keep on
developing your vocabulary.
You actually have four vocabulary levels because you have four different vocabularies—a
reading vocabulary, a listening vocabulary, a writing vocabulary, and a speaking vocabulary. Each
of these vocabularies has a similar basic core of words. However, you will find that many words are
found in one or two of them, but not in all four. There are words you understand as you read but do
not use in your own writing. Similarly, there are words you understand as you listen to an instructor
uses them in a lecture but do not ordinarily use in your own speech. And there are words you
recognize when you read them which may not be part of your speaking vocabulary.
Of the four vocabularies, your listening and reading vocabularies are developing most rapidly.
Your writing and speaking vocabularies are developing less rapidly because, on daily basis, you do
less writing and speaking than reading or listening. Thus, in order to improve your overall vocabulary
you should try to in your speaking and writing the new words you learn by listening and reading.
1
Cited in Croft, Kenneth (ed.). 1980. Readings on English as a Second Language. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. (p. 431).
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Chapter 2: Developing Reading Vocabulary
This chapter is devoted to help you develop your reading vocabulary using three methods:
word analysis, context clues, and dictionary. Each method will be dealt with by presenting brief but
concise explanations, and each explanation is then followed by relevant exercises.
A. Word Analysis
When we use the term word analysis, we mean that it is possible to take an unfamiliar word,
figure out what a part or parts of the word mean, and come up with a definition. For example, let’s
say you come across the following sentence: “He thought it might be a good idea to study
dermatology.” Suppose you didn’t have the slightest idea what the word dermatology means. It
would undoubtedly help if you were told that derma means “skin” and logy means “study of”. Thus,
you would able to figure out that dermatology is “the study of skin.”
In general, English words consist of a root—the basic part on which groups of related words
are built—and affix—word parts that are attached to roots. The affixes attached to the beginning of
stems are called prefixes, and the ones attached to the end are called suffixes. A word that contains a
root and one or more affixes is called a derivative. The following chart will show you how seven
derivatives can be defined by means of their roots and prefixes.
Prefixes
Words
Roots
bibliophile (lover of books)


biblio (book)
phil (love)
philanthropist (one who loves humanity)


phil (love)
anthrop (humanity, human being)
misanthrope (one who hates humanity)


miso (hate)
anthrop (humanity, human being)
eu- (good)
euphony (good sound or harmony)

phon (sound)
caco- (bad)
cacophony (discord)

phon (sound)
a- (without, not)
aphony (silent)

phon (sound)
a- (without, not)
agnostic (one who does not know or one who
doubts)

gnos (hate)
In order to be able to effectively guess the meaning of unfamiliar words by using word
analysis, you should memorize some of the most important prefixes and roots, as well as a few of the
most important suffixes. Whenever you see an unfamiliar word, just look if it contains a prefix, root,
or suffix you know. If it does, you may be able to work out a definition without consulting your
dictionary.
1. Suffixes
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A suffix usually indicates a word’s parts of speech without giving important information about
its meaning. Thus, suffixes are not always useful clues to the meaning of unfamiliar words, except –
er, -ist, and –less (see explanation for these three below the table of common suffixes).
Exercise 2-1
In the following charts, some of the most common suffixes are listed. Each chart lists suffixes based
on the part of speech they identify. In the second column each suffix is given only an ‘area’ of
meaning because most often there is no one single specific meaning. In the right-hand column, you
are given two examples for each suffix, but you should try to record two more examples for each
item. Refer to a dictionary if necessary.
Verb Suffixes
-ify
-ize
Area of Meaning
make into, cause to be
cause to be, make like
Noun Suffixes
-ance
-ancy
-dom
-ee
-ence
-ion
-ity
-ment
-ness
-ship
Area of Meaning
state, condition, quality
state, condition, quality
state, condition, dignity, office
the object or receiver of action
state, condition, quality
condition or the act of
quality or condition of
result or means of an action
state, condition, quality
skill, character, condition,
office
act, process, condition
-ure
Adjective
Suffixes
-able
-full
-ible
-ic, -ical
-ious, -ous
-ive
-y
Adverb
Suffixes
-ly
Examples
simplify, glorify,
categorize, popularize,
Examples
appearance, assurance,
pregnancy, vacancy,
freedom, kingdom,
employee, payee,
preference, independence,
depression, suggestion,
acidity, captivity,
management, requirement,
happiness, kindness,
friendship, courtship,
exposure, departure,
Area of Meaning
capable of being
full of, having the quality of
capable of being
pertaining to
full of, of the nature of
quality of, having a tendency
towards
full of, pet name or familiar
name
Examples
dependable, touchable,
peaceful, plentiful,
reducible, sensible,
scientific, practical,
glorious, spontaneous,
detective, relative,
dusty, sissy, daddy,
Area of Meaning
in the manner of, regular
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Examples
quickly, slowly,
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-ward
occurrence
in the direction of
homeward, backward,
Of the more than one hundred suffixes, the followings are the only three that are fairly reliable
indicators of the meaning of words:
1. –er, which indicates “a person,” in such a word as builder.
2. –ist, which indicates “a person,” in such a word as organist.
3. –less, which indicates “without,” in such a word as armless.
 Exercise 2-2
The words printed in boldface are derivatives; locate their base words and write them on the lines
provided.
1. The rest room is an accommodation for customers.
It is provided to _________________ customers.
2. The earthquake was a calamitous event.
The earthquake was a _________________.
3. We enjoy the collegiate ball games.
We enjoy the ball games at ___________________.
4. He is a combative type of person.
He is always ready for _________________.
5. Please prepare a compilation of the facts.
Please _________________ the facts.
6. Can you differentiate between them?
Can you see how they _________________?
7. I like her directness.
I like her __________________ manner.
8. We find his good humor enviable.
We __________________his good humor.
9. We do not want corruption in government.
We do not want a _________________ government
10. I admire the fluidity with which he speaks.
I admire his ______________ way of speaking.
11. Her death was grievous to me.
Her death caused me to _________________.
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12. Its expiration date is December 31, 2005.
It will _________________ on December 31, 2005.
13. John Mauritz is a perfectionist.
John Mauritz wants to be _________________.
14. He has a maniacal laugh.
He laughs like a ________________.
15. The rain forest was not penetrable.
We cannot _________________ the rain forest.
16. How many years was his mayoralty.
How many years was he _________________.
17. Joe was our most reliable employee.
Joe was the employee we ________________ on most.
18. We are regretful that we cannot attend.
We ________________that we cannot attend.
19. Television has helped to popularize football.
Television has helped to make football ______________.
20. The idea was only theoretical.
The idea was only a ________________.
 Exercise 2-3
Write the nouns, verbs, and adjectives that are missing in the following sets by adding the correct
suffix to each base word. Refer to a dictionary if necessary.
No
Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
1.
accommodation
accommodate
. . . . . . . .
2.
. . . . . . . .
agree
agreeable
3.
beauty
. . . . . . . .
beautiful
4.
combat
combat
. . . . . . . .
5.
. . . . . . . .
create
creative
6.
decision
decide
. . . . . . . .
7.
director
. . . . . . . .
directive
8.
. . . . . . . .
employ
employing
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9.
government
govern
. . . . . . . .
10.
information
. . . . . . . .
informative
11.
impression
impress
. . . . . . . .
12.
. . . . . . . .
legislate
legislative
13.
payment
. . . . . . . .
payable
14.
. . . . . . . .
penetrate
penetrable
15.
possession
posses
. . . . . . . .
2. Prefixes
Different from a suffix which usually changes the part of speech of a word, prefixes usually
changes its meaning. For example, the suffix –able changes verbs into adjectives (adaptable,
enjoyable).
The prefix im- changes the meaning to the opposite (measurable becomes immeasurable).
 Exercise 2-4
In the following charts, some of the most common prefixes are listed. In the second column each
suffix is given only an ‘area’ of meaning because most often there is no one single specific meaning.
In the right-hand column, you are given two examples for each suffix, but you should try to record two
more examples for each item. Refer to a dictionary if necessary
No
Prefixes
Area of Meaning
Examples
1.
un-
not; no
unhappy; unwilling
2.
non-
not; no
nonliving; nonintervention
3.
dis-
not; no
distrust; disable
4.
in-
not; no
indirect; inactive
5.
im-
not; no
imperfect; impartial
6.
ir-
not; no
irrational; irrelevant
7.
il-
not; no
illegal; illeterate
8.
pre-
before; beforehand
prewar; premature
9.
post-
after
postwar; postscript
10.
pro-
favor (ing)
prowar; proactive
11.
anti-
oppos(ing)
antiwar; antiseptic
12.
hyper-
excessive(ly)
hyperactive; hypercritical
13.
inter-
between
interstate; international
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14.
mal-
bad(ly)
malpractice; malnutrition
15.
mis-
incorrect(ly)
misspell; misunderstand
16.
pseudo-
false(ly)
pseudonym; pseudoscience
17.
semi-
partly; partially
semipublic; semi=final
18.
re-
again
rewrite; recycle
 Exercise 2-5
The words printed in boldface are derivatives. The correct answer to each question is a grammatical
sentence created by writing two words: (1) the meaning of the prefix in the derivative and (2) the
base word in the derivative. (Item 1 is done as an example)
1. They are antialcoholists.
They __dislike__ the use of __alcohol.__.
2. Our difference are irreconcible.
We can ___________ ____________our difference.
3. His ideas are unalterable.
He will ____________ ____________ his ideas.
4. Did he make a maladjustment to marriage?
Did he _____________ ____________ to marriage?
5. Her handwriting is illegible.
Her handwriting is ___________ ____________.
6. The patient is semiconscious.
The patient is ___________ ____________.
7. He requires rehospitalization.
He must go to the ___________ ____________.
8. Will you do postgraduate study?
Will you study ___________ you ____________?
9. The rule is nonapplicable here.
The rule cannot ___________ ____________ here.
10. We took an intercontinental flight.
We took a flight ___________ ____________s.
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11. The difference is indistinguishable.
One can ___________ ____________ the difference.
12. Outer space is illimitable.
There is___________ ____________ to outer space.
13. The machine is semiautomatic.
The machine is ___________ ____________.
14. We took an interstate bus trip.
We took a bus trip___________ ____________s.
15. Was his problem misinterpretation?
Did he ___________ ____________?
16. The curtains are semitransparent.
The curtains are ___________ ____________.
17. He is an impotent leader.
He is___________ a ____________ leader.
18. They are anti-imperialists.
They ___________ ____________activities.
19. His point of view is illiberal.
His point of view is ___________ ____________.
20. Her hair loss is irremediable.
There is ___________ ____________for her hair loss.
3. Present and Past Participles as Adjectives
One familiar way to change a verb into an adjective is to use the present participle (the –ing
ending) or the past participle (the –ed ending). For example:
“Your idea surprises me. It is a surprising idea,” she said with a surprised tone of voice.
Students sometimes confuse these two forms. One student, for example, once said that he was boring
in the Reading class. He meant, of course, that he was bored. “He was a boring student” means that
he causes others to be bored. “He was a bored student” means that others cause him to be bored.
 Exercise 2-6
Fill in the blank with the correct adjective form of the italicized verb. (Item 1 is done as an example)
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1. The professor did not mean to bore the class. However, his lecture was very__boring.__ The
whole class was __bored._
2. All nations in the world have tried to develop their own country for more than four decades.
However, the majority of nations are still _______________countries. Only a few are
categorized as ______________ countries.
3. The teacher hoped to interest her students in English grammar. Her explanations were so
________ that all the students were _______________.
4. Bob Hope is paid a high salary to amuse people. His audience is always ________________ by
his _________________jokes.
5. The lawyer tried to convince the jury. She gave many _________________ reasons. The jury
was finally __________________.
6. John tried to frighten his younger brother, Jimmy. He put on a horrid-looking mask that was so
__________________ that Jimmy was so ____________________ and cried all night.
7. The Girl Scout leader had not intended to tire the girls. The mountain was so high, however, that
the climb was very _____________________. When they reached the top, some of the girls were
very __________________.
4. Word Stems
Prefixes and suffixes are added to word stems. Sometimes a word stem can be used by itself,
such as the word act or form. Most often, a word stem can be used only in combination with a prefix
or a suffix. For example, the word stem dict has a root meaning of “to say or to speak,” but it is never
used alone. Prefixes can be used before the stem (predict, contradict), or suffixes added after the
stem (diction, dictator). Most word stems in English come from Latin and Greek. If you learn the
most common of these, you will be able to analyze the meaning of many words without having to
look them up in a dictionary.
 Exercise 2-7
In the following charts, some of the most common word stems are listed alphabetically. The meaning
of the stem is given as an ‘area’ of meaning because most often there is no one single specific
meaning. In the right-hand column, you are given one examples for each word stem. Your duty is to
record two more examples for each item. Refer to a dictionary if necessary
No
Word Stem
Area of Meaning
Examples
1.
anthro
man, mankind
anthropology
2.
auto
self
automatic
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3.
bibl
book
bibliophile
4.
chron
time
chronological
5.
cosm
order, world
cosmopolitan
6.
cycl
wheel, circle
bicycle
7.
dic, dict
say, speak
dictate
8.
duc, duct
lead
induction
9.
fac, fact, fect
do, make
factory
10.
form
form, shape
reformation
11.
fort
strong
fortify
12.
geo
earth
geology
13.
gram, graph
write, writing
graphic
14.
hetero
other, different
heterogonous
15.
homo
same
homogenous
16.
log, logy
speech, word, sudy
biology
17.
man, manu
hand
manual
18.
mater, matri
mother
matriarch
19.
medi
middle
mediate
20.
nomen, nym
name
nomenclature
21.
omni
all
omnipotence
22.
pater, patri
father
patriarch
23.
pathy
feeling, suffering
sympathy
24.
phil
like, love
philosophy
25.
phon
sound
phonology
26.
port
carry
portable
27.
scrib, script
write
transcription
28.
sequ, secut
follow
sequence
29.
soph
wisdom, wise
philosopher
30.
tax, tact
arrange, order
taxonomy
31.
tele
far, distant
telephone
32.
tempor
time
temporary
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33.
tract
draw, pull
distract
34.
vene, vent
come, go
convene
35.
vert, vers
turn
divert
36.
voc, vok
call
vocation
37.
volve, volu
roll, turn
revolution
 Exercise 2-8
Analyze each of the italicized words. Use your dictionary if necessary. Write the answers on the line
provided.
1. -forma. What is a transformation?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
b. Is formula related to this stem?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
c. What does formulate mean?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
d. What does conform mean?
________________________________________________________________________
__
2. -dic-, -dicta. What is a prediction?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
b. How is dictator related to this stem?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
c. What is an edict?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
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d. What is a contradiction?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. -duc-, -ducta. What does the conductor of an orchestra do?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
b. What is inductive reasoning?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
c. Is the word duke related to this stem?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
d. What is an aqueduct used for?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
4. -forta. What is the meaning of fortify?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
b. Is comfort related to this stem?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
c. What does fortitude mean?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
d. Is fortune related to this term?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
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5. -man-, -manua. What is manual labor?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
b. What is the element of manufacture? How has the meaning change?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
_______________________________________________________________________
___
c. What a manuscript?
_______________________________________________________________________
___
d. Is manouver related to this term?
________________________________________________________________________
__
B. Context Clues
Word analysis is not always sufficient to give us the precise definition of a word. Thus, we
need to combine it with context clues in order to make it easier for us to decide a clear meaning of
the word. Context refers to the sentence and paragraph in which a word appears. In using the context
to decide the meaning of word, you have to use your knowledge of grammar and your understanding
of the author’s ideas. There are three important types of context clues we always see in reading
materials: example clue, contrast clue, and restatement clue.
The context of a word often contains an example of behavior associated with the word. For
example, the sentence: “His feelings for his cousin were ambivalent; sometimes he delighted in her
company and sometimes he couldn’t stand the sight of her.” shows that someone with ambivalent
feelings tend to have mixed or conflicting emotions. This is clear from the examples given by the
writer that “he sometimes delighted in her company and sometimes he couldn’t stand the sight of
her.” So, you can conclude that in this context ambivalent means “conflicting.”
The context may also tell you what the word doesn’t mean. For example, “She wanted to give
me the impression that she erudite, but instead she gave me the impression that she know absolutely
nothing.” It is clear from this sentence that if someone is erudite, he or she is the opposite of someone
who knows nothing. Thus, someone who is erudite knows a great deal.
The context may actually contain a definition of the word. For example, “His redundancy was
not one of the things that please me about his style. As a matter of fact, the way he repeated himself
drove me almost insane.” There are two sentences in this example. From the first one we learn that
redundancy is “irritating”; from the second, we learn that redundancy means “repetition.”
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 Exercise 2-9
By using the context, guess and underline which of the four choices that suitably fills in the blanks in
each of the following items.
1. The young boy was punished for collecting … (obscene; copious; obsessive; antique)… pictures.
2. Frightened by the big dog, the little girl …(muttered; cried loudly; murmured; whispered) to ask
for her mother’s help.
3. The night was so … (quiet; beautiful; dark; dangerous)… that not a sound could be heard.
4. Although Alice had expected her parents to be worried by her long, unexplained absence, both
her mother and father seemed quite … (unavailable; undecided; unworried; unexpected)
5. His … (beautiful; careful; silent; unreadable) … handwriting resulted from haste and
carelessness rather than from the inability to form the letter correctly.
6. Timothy is very popular among his classmates because he is a …(handsome; pretty; beautiful;
plain) … young man.
7. Although Budd had gone out with Tina for than ten years, they …(built up; relocated; promoted;
split up) … and never met each other.
8. When the letter from his wife arrived, he … (destroyed; read; tore up; wrote) … the contents
carefully. Because she hadn’t answered his question, he was angry and tossed the letter into the
fire.
9. After so many nights of… (parties; frightening dreams; sleeplessness; loneliness) …, Mrs.
Constable decided that she really must see a doctor. She could not continue to lie awake, night
after night, worrying about her health.
10. The hotel is quite reasonable. It … (suffered; charged; gave; wasted) … me $250 for staying four
nights there.
 Exercise 2-10
By using the context of each of the following items, guess the meanings of the bold face words and
write them in the lines provided.
1. The city council will have a caucus tomorrow to decide whether to support the major’s tax
proposal.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Aspirin, fresh air, or something to eat will often alleviate a minor headache.
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_____________________________________________________________________________
3. My research paper will not be completed on time unless I adhere to the writing schedule
prepared.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. You deserve a pay raise, but business is so poor now that it is not opportune for you to request
one.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. If you enjoy going to parties, belonging to clubs, and engaging in other activities with groups of
people, you are gregarious.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. It is not certain how the ancient Egyptians were able to hoist such heavy stones to such heights.
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. Mary was queasy about telling her mother-in-law that she and Philip had decided to get divorce.
_____________________________________________________________________________
8. Joan is irked by her long hours and low wages.
_____________________________________________________________________________
9. At present, our company breaks even.
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. Sunday is her busiest day because it is the only day when she washes the clothes and does the
shopping for her big family.
_____________________________________________________________________________
C. Dictionary Usage
For foreign students of English, a good dictionary is a necessary reference book from which
you can learn many important things. The following is a list of the things a good dictionary provides:
1. Spelling
2. Pronunciation
3. Syllable Division
4. Derivation
5. Meaning
6. Part of Speech
7. Usage
8. Synonyms and Antonyms
9. General information
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In addition to these things, some dictionaries include rules for punctuation, capitalization,
spelling and even a list of colleges and universities in Canada and the United States. Realizing this,
you can see now how important it is to be familiar with your dictionary. However, in the context of
this chapter not all aspects of a dictionary will be discussed. The only thing to be dealt with is how to
consult it to get the meaning of words.
Probably the most important information regarding a word is its meaning. You must
understand, however, that most words in English have many meanings or shades of meanings. It is
this fact which makes a dictionary dangerous if it is not used correctly. Words with several different
meanings are sometimes illustrated in sentences or phrases. Notice the different meanings for the
word drop:
drop –n. 1. a small amount of liquid in a roundish shape: a drop of rain. 2. a sudden
fall. 3. a distance down: a drop of 30 feet. –v. 1. to fall in drops. 2. to fall suddenly. 3. to
kill. 4. to go lower; sink.
The “real” meaning of the word drop depends upon how it is used in a sentence. For example: “I felt
a drop of water on my face” (noun, meaning 1); “He was frightened by the deep drop” (noun,
meaning 3); “The book dropped to the floor” (verb, meaning 2); “He dropped the lion with a single
shot” (verb, meaning 3).
In relation to this fact, remember that when you are looking for a definition, do not read just
the first meaning listed. Look for the meaning that best fits the context in which the word is used.
 Exercise 2-11
Notice the different meanings of the word “play” in the following sentences. Using your dictionary,
find the specific meaning of play in each sentence. Write the meaning on the line provided.
1. The children like to play in the afternoon.
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2. Mary will play the piano in the concert.
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3. The play produced by the Drama Club was a success.
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4. It was a clever play that won the football game for us.
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5. The fire fighters played the hose on the fire.
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6. “Seven days without water can make one weak” is a funny play on words.
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 Exercise 2-12
Look up each of the following bold face two-word verb idioms in your dictionary. Write the meaning
on the line provided. If your dictionary does not include two-word verb or the meaning intended here,
write “not in (name of dictionary).”
1. Your ideas are good, but they don’t hang together very well.
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2. Stop putting it off! Do it now.
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3. At first I had difficulty in English, but now I’m getting on okay.
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4. She tries to get by with the least amount of work.
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5. In order to get your idea across, you need to organize them better and state them more clearly.
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6. I don’t go in for classical music very much.
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7. Please stop by my office this afternoon.
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8. Be sure to keep up with the reading assignments so that you’ll understand the lecture.
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9. Gerardo finally gave in to the teacher’s logic.
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10. She just came into a lot of money.
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 Exercise 2-13
Look up each of the following bold face noun phrase or verb phrase idioms in your dictionary. Write
the meaning on the line provided. If your dictionary does not include two-word verb or the meaning
intended here, write “not in (name of dictionary).”
1.
Professor Jenny’s lecture was way over my head.
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2.
Your answer would have been better if you hadn’t wasted so much time beating around the bush.
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3.
My roommate has experienced unhappy love at first hand.
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4.
I think she flunked because she tried to burn the candle at both ends.
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5.
Wanda wanted to complain to the teacher about her grade, but then she got cold feet.
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6.
He wanted to return to school, but unfortunately, he had burned all his bridges.
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7.
Learning should take place from the cradle to the grave.
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8.
There is heavy traffic jams in this street in every rush hour. The new shopping mall has created a bottle
neck.
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