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SOCIOLOGY Review Definition Sociological Theories Moral Development Kohlberg SOCIOLOGY Definition: The scientific study of social groups Focus on: On humans as members of a social group On the behaviour of people in groups, on their interactions and relationships and on the social structures they develop Areas of Inquiry: Names: Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Parsons, Murdock • How the group we belong to shapes our thinking and experience • Relates what appears to be an individual issue (e.g. Suicide) to larger issues (e.g. social alienation) Example: Why do so many North American suffer from depression? Why do increasing numbers of youth cheat at school? Sociology - Theories Conflict Theory - A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources. Functional Analysis - A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium. Symbolic Interactionism - A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another. And back and forth it goes... William Wundt: Structuralism - introspection Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis – innate drives & structures of the mind - psycho sexual stages Alfred Adler – Humanism - innate drive for perfection Jean Piaget – Cognitive Dev. - invariable stages William James – Functionalism – environment & behaviours B.F. Skinner: Behaviourism - operant conditioning Lev Vygotsky: Cognitive Dev. - social context = key Activity: Small groups... elect an interviewer ... answer questions about the story... explain your reasoning… record responses (point form)... Afterwards... Analyse responses: See if you can place them in one of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning Moral Dilemma - Activity Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Moral Development – Innate or Social? Piaget on development of Moral Reasoning Developments in the Formal Operations Stage Children younger than 10 or 11 years - think about moral dilemmas one way - regard rules as fixed and absolute: cannot be changed - base their moral judgments more on consequences Older child - a more relativistic view - understands that it is permissible to change rules if everyone agrees - base their judgments on intentions - rules are not sacred and absolute but are devices which humans use to get along cooperatively Example... For example, the young child (under 10-11) hears about one boy who broke 15 cups trying to help his mother and another boy who broke only one cup trying to steal cookies... The young child thinks that the first boy did worse. The child primarily considers the amount of damage--the consequences— From the younger child’s POV, who did worse? Why? The older child is more likely to judge wrongness in terms of the motives underlying the act From the older child’s POV, who did worse? Why? Enter Lawrence Kohlberg • Moral reasoning is the basis for ethical behaviour • Interviewed both children and adolescents about moral dilemmas • Found stages that go well beyond Piaget's • He uncovered six stages • (only the first three of which share many features with Piaget's stages) KOHLBERG'S Research • core sample was comprised of 72 boys (1958) • from both middle- and lower-class families in Chicago • ages 10, 13, and 16 • later added younger children, delinquents, and boys and girls from other American cities and from other countries (1963, 1970) METHOD Basic interview - consists of a series of dilemmas such as the following: Moral Dilemma - Activity Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Questions... Some of Kohlberg’s interview questions (1963): Should Heinz steal the drug? Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should Heinz steal the drug? If it was a drug for a pet dog that he loves should Heinz steal the drug? Is it important for people to do everything they can to save another’s life? Is it against the law for Heinz to steal? Should people try to do everything they can to obey the law? Did the druggist have the right to charge that much? Note : Whether the individual says to steal the drug or not to steal it is not important in identifying the moral stage. What is important is the level of moral reasoning behind the decision Kohlberg’s Stages Pre- Age 4-10 Conventional - Sense of good and bad is connected with fear of being punished for disobeying those in positions of power - Children learn that actions have consequences - Motivation can mean avoiding punishment, satisfying a need, or an exchange of favours Conventional - Adolescence - conformity to the rules - connected with the belief that the existing social order must be right and should be followed - Stage 3 is defined by the need for acceptance in interpersonal relationships - Stage 4 is law and order orientation; here judgments are based on acceptance of and respect for authority PostConventional - Older children and young adults - Actions and self judgment are guided by consideration of the welfare of the community, of the rights of the individual, and of universal ethical principles (e.g. the basic dignity of the individual) • Kohlberg: ▫ ▫ ▫ ▫ ▫ ▫ Used dilemmas to identify moral development Levels were age-related Stages occurred in sequence Before age 9, most children use level 1 Most adolescents reason at stage 3 Early adulthood: few use post-conventional ways • Research on Kohlberg’s theory: ▫ No 10-year-olds use level 4 ▫ 62% of 36-year-olds used stage 4 ▫ Stage 5 did not appear until age 20–22 Stage one (obedience) • Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a bad person • Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth $200 and not how much the druggist wanted for it • Heinz had even offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else. Stage two (self-interest) • Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence • Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would probably languish over a jail cell more than his wife's death Stage three (conformity) • Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband • Or: Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he tried to do everything he could without breaking the law, you cannot blame him. Stage four (law-and-order) • Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal • Or: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law; actions have consequences. Stage five (human rights) • Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law • Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his actions right. Stage six (universal human ethics) • Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person • Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally significant. • Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory: ▫ Too much emphasis on thought ▫ Not enough emphasis on moral behavior ▫ Need other means of measuring moral reasoning ▫ Dismissed family and peer relations as influences of moral values ▫ Some cultures influence moral values that conflict with Kohlberg’s • Bandura: people engage in harmful conduct after they justify morality of their actions to themselves • Others criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory: ▫ Children focus on consequences of actions ▫ Recent research: Kohlberg’s results have male bias – females socialized as more care-oriented ▫ Need distinction between moral reasoning and social conventional reasoning ▫ Moral behavior can be negative and antisocial ▫ Altruism is unselfish effort • Prosocial behavior is positive aspect of moral behavior like empathy And back and forth it goes... William Wundt: Structuralism introspection - Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis – innate drives & structures of the mind - psycho sexual stages Alfred Adler : Humanism - innate drive for perfection Jean Piaget: Cognitive Dev. - invariable stages Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Dev. - invariable stages William James – Functionalism – environment & behaviours B.F. Skinner: Behaviourism - operant conditioning Lev Vygotsky: Cognitive Dev. - social context = key Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Dev.