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Ecology Ecosystem observations Biosphere • Living and nonliving components? Ecosystems • Similarities and differences? Communities Populations Organisms species Geosphere Geosphere: soil Components? • Millions of microorganisms • Minerals/Nutrients – O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg • Decaying organic matter (humus) • Void space – water • Void space – air Geosphere: soil Properties? • Porosity • Permeability • Color • Grain size • Soil Texture • pH - Acid, < 7.0 - Alkaline, > 7.0 Geosphere: soil horizons O - surface litter layer • Humus provides N, K, binds particles, enhances soil moisture retention A - topsoil layer • Most productive layer • Mixture of organic / inorganic products B & C – Subsoil to substratum • Dense • Lower in organic matter 1 Atmosphere Hydrosphere Condensation Rain clouds Transpiration Precipitation to land Transpiration from plants Precipitation Runoff Surface runoff (rapid) Evaporation Precipitation Evaporation from land Evaporation from ocean Precipitation to ocean Surface runoff (rapid) Infiltration and Percolation Groundwater movement (slow) Ocean storage Biosphere Food chain and trophic levels Solar Energy First Trophic Level Second Trophic Level Third Trophic Level Producers (plants) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary consumers (carnivores) Heat Heat Fourth Trophic Level Plant nutrients From atmosphere, soil and water Tertiary consumers (top carnivores) • Vertebrate Grazers and Seedeaters: Deer, elk; mice, rabbits, squirrels; Seed- and fruit-eating birds • Invertebrate Grazers and Seedeaters: Herbivorous insects • Parasites on Plants: Fungi, bacteria, parasitic flowering plants; insect galls, nematode worms, some protozoa Producers Green plants Some bacteria Primary Consumers Herbivores Plant parasites Heat Solar energy Heat Heat Heat Heat Decomposers Bacteria Fungi: Bracket, cup, Pore fungi, Chanterelles, Gilled mushrooms, etc. Slime molds Water molds •Vertebrate Omnivores: Black bear, raccoon, opossum, crow Secondary Consumers Omnivores Carnivores Animal parasites Scavengers Heat Detritivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) •Vertebrate Carnivores: Coyotes, bats, bobcats, weasels, mole shrews; many birds: owls, flickers, warblers, etc. •Invertebrate Carnivores: Many insects like beetles, wasps •Animal Parasites: Worms, protozoa, bacteria, fungi •Scavengers: Crows, many invertebrates Autotrophs (producers) Net primary productivity: rate at which producers turn solar energy to biomass minus respiration, or the energy available to consumers (chlorophyll mg/m3) Willapa Bay, WA http://www.wetlabs.com/images/doe/chlscanl.gif 2 Autotrophs (producers) Douglas fir Red Cedar Washington Native Plant Society Western hemlock Source: NASA Autotrophs (producers) Washington Native Plant Society Autotrophs (producers) Washington Native Plant Society Salal Bigleaf Maple Cascade Oregon grape Red Huckleberry Madrone Red alder Devil’s Club http://denisewymore.wordpress.com/2010/04/ http://w ww.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/temprain.htm http://www.sfu.ca/halk-ethnobiology/html/plants/redhuckleberry.htm Black tailed deer http://w ww.gatorfarm.com/birds.html Elk Black capped chickadee Douglas squirrel Banana slug http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AmericanRedSquirrel.jpg http://www.wogameandfish.com/hunting/elk-hunting/wo_aa095503a/ • Nonnative, invasive http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OregonBlacktail.jpg Douglass Fir tussock Moth Autotrophs (producers) http://dnrc.mt.gov/forestry/Assistance/Pests/tussockmoth.asp 3 Turkey tail mushroom Cup fungus Black bear Spotted Owl http://oalginsbachr.wordpress.com/fauna/ http://stockpix.com/stock/animals/birds/raptorialbirds/owls/4992.htm http://w ww.bobkellerphoto.com/ Chanterelle Western long ear bat http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slime_Mold_Olympic_National_Park_North_Fork_Sol_Duc.jpg Spider wasp Slime mold http://w ww.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/temprain.htm Cougar, or Mountain lion http://m addogenglishwoman.wordpress.com/category/wildlife/ http://share3.esd105.wednet.edu/rsandelin/Fieldguide/Animalpages/Insects/Bees-wasps.htm#Spider_Wasp http://w ww.batsnorthwest.org/myev_gallery.html Raccoon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OregonBlacktail.jpg Humans release sulfur dioxide by: Nutrient Cycles: Sulfur • Burning coal and oil • Refining petroleum • Converting metallic ores into free metals (copper, lead, and zinc) (H2 SO43-) (SO3) (H2 SO43-) (SO3) (NH4) 2SO4 (SO2) (NH4) 2SO4 (SO2) (H2 S) (CH3) 2S phytoplankton (H2 S) (CH3) 2S phytoplankton (SO42-) (SO42-) (xS2-) (S2-) (H2 S) (H2 S) Nutrient Cycles: Water Nutrient Cycles: Carbon Condensation Rain clouds Transpiration Precipitation to land Transpiration from plants Precipitation Runoff Surface runoff (rapid) Evaporation Precipitation Evaporation from land Evaporation from ocean Precipitation to ocean Surface runoff (rapid) Infiltration and Percolation Groundwater movement (slow) Ocean storage 4 Nutrient Cycles: Nitrogen Nutrient Cycles: Phosphorus Species Species: Indicator • Indicator • Keystone • Foundation • serve as early warnings of ecosystem damage • Puget Sound indicator species of toxic contam. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v404/n6779/abs/404752a0.html – – – – Chinook/coho salmon Mussels Harbor seals English sole • Puget Sound indicator species of human waste – Shellfish “Canary in the coal mine” Nearly 1 in 3 of 5,743 described amphibian species are in decline Species: Keystone Species: Keystone • determine types and numbers of other species in a community • determine types and numbers of other species in a community Chinook salmon Starfish Sea otter “salmon runs in SE Alaska add up to 170 tons of phosphorous per year to Lake Illiamna3 , and the number of salmon carcasses carried by brown bears … adds phosphorous to terrestrial systems at a rate of 6.77 kg/ha -- the equivalent application rate of commercial fertilizers for evergreen trees4 .” http://w ww.wildsalmoncenter.org/about/whySalmon.php http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/species/salmon.html http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/species/salmon.html 5 • create and enhance habitats that can benefit other species Eelgrass Species Interactions • • • • • Competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism http://w ashingtondnr.wordpress.com Western hemlock http://www.statesymbolsusa.org/Washington/treeWesternHemlock.html Species: Foundation DNR/Helen Berry Coral Species Interactions Species Interactions • Competition, specialization, resource partitioning • Predation – Predators may have camouflage, speed, patience, inject paralyzing chemicals Species Interactions • Predation • Parasitism – Prey evolve defenses – Parasite benefits, host is harmed http://share3.esd105.wednet.edu/rsandelin/Fieldguide/Animalpages/Insects/Bees-wasps.htm#Braconid_Wasp Species Interactions 6 http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Brown-headed_Cowbird/id Species Interactions Parasitism http://chickadeee.wordpress.com/2008/09/17/seriously/ • live in host – microorganisms, tapeworms • live outside host – fleas, ticks, mistletoe plants, sea lampreys • little contact with host – dump-nesting birds Species Interactions • Parasitism: myco-heterotrophs Indian Pipe Species Interactions Species Interactions • Mutualism • Mutualism Candystick – species interact in a way that benefits both Cleaner fish Lichen: algae + fungus Species Interactions mycorrhizal association on pine roots Population growth • Commensalism Stable growth – benefits one species but has little/no effect on the other Epiphytes 7 Population growth Reproductive patterns r-selected species Stable growth • Many small offspring (400/yr) • Little - no parental care of offspring • Early reproductive age (3-4 mo.) • Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age • Pioneer species k-selected species • Fewer, larger offspring (2-3 every 2 years) • High parental care of offspring (born blind) • Later reproductive age (4-7 yrs old) • Most offspring survive to reproductive age • Late successional species Irruptive or Mathusian growth Biomes Evolution 4.5 4 3 2 1 Billions of years ago 0 today • Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans • Small organic molecules form in the sea • Large organic molecule form in the sea • First protocells form in the sea • Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea • Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas • Multicellular organisms form in the seas, later on land Red algae Evolution: Homonids 4.5 4 3 2 1 Billions of years ago 0 Humans Credit: Berkeley, Palomar College Evolution: Natural selection how? today • • • • genetic variability traits must be heritable trait must lead to differential reproduction leads to adaptations: heritable traits that enable survival and reproduction - Structural, behavioral/sexual, physiological Source: Reed et al., PLOS Biology 8 Structural adaptations Evolution: Genetic variation Greater Koa-finch how? • mutations: random changes in the structure or # of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring Kuai Akialaoa Amakihi Kona Grosbeak Crested Honeycreeper Akiapolaau Maui Parrotbill Apapane Unknown finch ancestor how? Evolution: Genetic drift • random selection • allows maladaptive traits in small populations - probability Worms of different color over 4 generations: Evolution • Large gene pool - Increases biological fitness of the species • Small gene pool - Fewer traits for natural selection - Genetic drift has significant affects - Increased potential of extinction - chance Hunted to near extinction, 30,000 to 1,000 in 1900 Evolution Behavioral, or Speciation through Physiological, or adaptations Structural Speciation through chance/ Genetic drift probability/human selection Coevolution Interacting species engage in a back and forth genetic contest Convergent evolution Organisms not closely related, independently evolve similar traits due to similar ecological niches 9