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Study Guide for Early
Christianity and the
Byzantine Empire
GOVERNMENT
Government Type
I can compare the source of power in this government to other governments.
Byzantine Empire had a centralized government headed by the Emperor; skilled, well paid, loyal
officials helped the empire run smoothly. Practiced shrewd diplomacy by making alliance marriages,
keeping an intelligence service, and using “intrigues” (tricking others to turn against each other).
Famous Emperor Justinian was a strong leader. He controlled the military, made laws, and was
supreme judge. In the Byzantine Empire, the emperor was in control, with church leaders respecting
his wishes. The emperor also chose the patriarch of Constantinople, the leading Church official in the
Byzantine Empire. In this way, the emperor controlled the Church as well as the government. Church
and government worked closely together in the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines believed their
emperor represented Jesus Christ on Earth. The emperor was crowned in a religious ceremony.
Early Christian Church - Power was organized on a hierarchy (organization with different levels of
authority) based on Roman hierarchy. The clergy (religious officials, such as priests, given authority to
conduct religious services) from least to most powerful – local churches were led priests. Several
churches formed a diocese led by a bishop. A bishop in charge of an entire region was an archbishop.
The five leading archbishops became known as patriarchs and were in charge of large areas of territory.
The patriarch of Rome became known as the Pope.
The church in Rome survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Its head, the pope, became the
strongest leader in Western Europe. Under the pope, the Latin churches of the region became known
as the Roman Catholic Church. In the East, however, the Roman Empire continued. It developed into
the Byzantine Empire. Like Roman Catholics in the West, the Byzantines developed their own form of
Christianity. It was based on their Greek heritage and was known as the Eastern Orthodox Church.
They did not accept the authority of the pope in Rome over them.
Democratic Principals
I can describe how this government used democratic principles (justice, equality, responsibility, freedom).
Byzantine Empire – Justinian reformed the law code. His legal scholars preserved and organized the
laws of the Roman Empire. The group's new simplified code became known as the Justinian Code.
Officials, businesspeople, and individuals could now more easily understand the empire's laws. Over the
years, the Justinian Code has had a great influence on the laws of almost every country in Europe.
Empress Theodora convinced Justinian to give women more rights such as the right to own land. That
allowed a widow the income to take care of her children. Some Byzantine women became well
educated and involved in politics.
Roman Emperor Constantine issued an order called the Edict of Milan. It gave religious freedom to all
people and made Christianity legal.
CULTURE
Elements of Culture
Social Institutions influence on behavior
I can explain how cultural elements in this society helped define this group and give them unique perspectives.
Beliefs - Byzantine people and leaders believed that God wanted them to preserve and spread Christianity. Christianity: Like the Jews,
Christians believed in the God of Israel and studied the Hebrew Bible. Christians taught that the one God existed in three persons:
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (the Trinity), that Jesus was the Son of God and had come to save people, and that by accepting Jesus and his
teachings, people could gain salvation (the act of being saved from sin and allowed to enter heaven).
Customs/traditions - The Byzantines at first followed Roman ways. Constantinople was known as the "New Rome." It had Roman-style
architecture and an oval arena called the Hippodrome, where chariot races and other events were held. Byzantine political and social
life also was based on that of Rome. Emperors spoke Latin and enforced Roman laws. The empire's poor people received free bread and
shows. Wealthy people lived in town or on large farming estates. Over time, the Byzantine Empire became less Roman and more Greek.
Most Byzantines spoke Greek and honored their Greek past. Byzantine emperors and officials began to speak Greek too.
Language – Byzantines - Latin, then Greek. A Byzantine missionary named Cyril invented a new alphabet to present the Christian
message in the Slavic languages to the Slavs, a people of Eastern Europe . The Cyrillic alphabet was based on Greek letters.
Literature - Most Byzantine authors wrote about religion and the lives of saints. They stressed the need to obey God and save one's soul.
Early Christian Church - Jesus himself left no writings. Church leaders preserved accounts of his life believed to be written by early
followers of Jesus named Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Each work was called a gospel ("good news"- one of the four accounts of Jesus'
life, teachings, and resurrection (the act of rising from the dead)) and combined with the writings of Paul and other early Christian
leaders form the New Testament of the Christian Bible. To present his message, Jesus often used parables (story that used events from
everyday life to express spiritual ideas).
Arts - Byzantine emperors supported artists and architects. Constantinople was known for its hundreds of churches and palaces. Justinian
built the Hagia Sophia which became the religious center of the Byzantine Empire. Mosaics were an important type of art in the
Byzantine Empire. Mosaics mainly were created to honor religious or political leaders and often showed pictures of saints (Christian holy
person).
I can investigate how social institutions in this society responded to human needs, structured society, and influenced behavior.
Family - The family was the center of social life for most Byzantines. Religion and the government stressed the importance of marriage
and family life. Divorces were rare and difficult to get. Byzantine women were expected to stay home and take care of their families.
Military – Famous General Belisarius reorganized the Byzantine army. Instead of foot soldiers, the Byzantine army came to rely on
cavalry—soldiers mounted on horses. Byzantine cavalry wore armor and carried bows and lances, which were long spears. Soldiers were
given land grants. Officers had instruction manuals that taught strategies. Navy had battering rams with secret weapon – Greek fire.
Religion - Men called monks banded together in monasteries (religious community where monks live and work). Women called nuns
lived in convents. Eastern Orthodox (Byzantine Empire) monks and nuns lived by rules the Basilian Rule. Western (Roman Catholic)
monks and nuns followed the Benedictine Rule. Followers of the Benedictine Rule gave up their belongings, lived simply, and spent their
time in work and prayer. Monks and nuns began to play important roles in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox life. They ran hospitals
and schools and aided the poor. They also helped preserve Greek and Roman writings. They served as missionaries (person who travels
to carry the ideas of a religion to others) to spread their religion. A priest named Patrick brought Christianity to Ireland. He set up a
number of monasteries and churches. Irish monks played an important role in preserving Christian and Roman learning. Friars were
different from monks. They did not stay in their monasteries. Instead, they went out into the world to preach. Friars lived by begging.
They could not own property or keep any personal wealth.
Education - Learning was highly respected in Byzantine culture. The government supported the training of scholars and government
officials. In Byzantine schools, boys studied religion, medicine, law, arithmetic, grammar, and other subjects. Wealthy Byzantines
sometimes hired tutors to teach their children. Girls usually did not attend schools and were taught at home.
Government - In the Byzantine Empire, the emperor was in control, with church leaders respecting his wishes. Roman Catholic Church the pope claimed both spiritual and political power. He often quarreled with kings over church and government affairs.
Impact of Cultural Differences
I can explain how interactions between this society and others led to conflict, compromise, and cooperation.
Communication - The Roman empire itself helped spread Christian ideas. The peace and order established by Rome allowed people to travel in safety. Christians used well-
paved Roman roads to carry their message from place to place. Since most of the empire's people spoke either Latin or Greek, Christians could talk with
them directly.
Conflicts – Early Christianity: Roman rulers feared the effects of Jesus' preaching might threaten law and order. Leaders in Jerusalem arrested Jesus,
charged him with treason, and crucified him. This was Rome's way of punishing political rebels and lower-class criminals. Roman officials began to see the
Christians as a threat to the government. Christians, like the Jews, refused to honor the Emperor as a god, refused to serve in the army, and refused to
hold public office. They criticized Roman festivals and games. As a result, the Romans saw the Christians as traitors who should be punished. Christianity
was made illegal, Christians were persecuted (to mistreat a person because of his or her beliefs), and many Christians became martyrs (people willing to
die rather than give up their beliefs).
The Iconoclastic Controversy - a major dispute divided the Church in the Byzantine Empire. The argument was over the use of icons (Christian religious
image or picture). Byzantine iconoclasts (person who opposed the use of idols in Byzantine churches, saying that icons encouraged the worship of idols)
wanted an end to the use of icons. They thought that honoring them was a form of idol worship forbidden by God. Supporters of icons claimed that icons
were symbols of God's presence in daily life and helped explain Christianity to people. Emperor Leo III did not approve of icons. He ordered all icons
removed from the churches. Most Byzantines, many church leaders, and even the pope in Rome opposed the emperor's order. The dispute over icons
damaged ties between the churches of Rome and Constantinople.
Church leadership - The pope claimed that he was the head of all Christian churches. The Byzantines did not accept the pope's claim. They believed the
patriarch of Constantinople and other bishops were equal to the pope.
The pope and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. Excommunication means to declare that a person or group no longer
belongs to the church. This began a schism, or separation, of the two most important branches of Christianity. The split between the Roman Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox Churches has lasted to this day.
Compromise/cooperation - Within their churches, Christians not only worshiped together but helped each other. They took care of the sick, the elderly,
widows, and orphans. Many women found that Christianity offered them new roles. They ran churches from their homes, spread Jesus' message, and
helped care for those in need.
Scarcity: decisions about use of natural resources, human resources, & capital
goods
ECONOMICS
I can explain how scarcity required this civilization to make decisions about how to use productive
resources.
Byzantine Empire - During Justinian's reign, the Byzantine military conquered most of Italy and
northern Africa and defeated the Persians in the east. However, Justinian conquered too much too
quickly. After he died, the empire did not have the money to maintain an army large enough to hold
the territory in the west.
Trade made the Byzantine Empire very rich. However, most Byzantines were not merchants. Instead
they were farmers, herders, laborers, and artisans. One of the major Byzantine industries was
weaving silk. Byzantine travelers smuggled silkworm eggs out of China. Brought to Constantinople, the
silkworms fed on mulberry leaves and produced silk threads. Weavers then used the threads to make
the silk cloth that brought wealth to the empire. Byzantine government regulated trade and
manufacturing to produce large tax revenues to pay officials, soldiers, and to build public buildings.
Supply & Demand
How are goods &
services exchanged
Productivity increases
Over time, monasteries began to play a role in Europe's politics. Monks took a vow of poverty, wore
simple clothes, and ate simple food, but their monasteries could make money. Each monastery
produced goods and owned land, and over time many of them became wealthy. The leader of a
monastery is called an abbot, and many abbots became involved in politics. They served as advisers to
kings and acted as rulers of the lands near their monasteries.
I can explain how supply and demand functioned in this civilization.
In the west, after Rome fell, disorders sometimes cut off trade routes. By 250, Rome's trade with
China and India had ended. Agricultural lands in the empire were going unused. With the declining
economy, people moved from cities and towns to rural areas in search of food. Cities began shrinking
to a fraction of their former size. Where agricultural estates felt threatened they protected themselves
by fortification (practice of strengthening or creating defenses, e.g. by building walls or digging
ditches), and their neighbors surrendered their holdings to them in exchange for protection.
Economic relations were developing that would last into the Middle Ages.
I can describe how goods and services were exchanged by this civilization.
The Byzantine Empire was the center of trade between Europe and Asia. Trade goods from presentday Russia in the north, Mediterranean lands in the south, Latin Europe in the west, and Persia and
China in the east passed through the empire. From Asia, ships and caravans brought luxury goods—
spices, gems, metals, and cloth—to Constantinople. For these items, Byzantine merchants traded
(exported) farm goods as well as furs, honey, and enslaved people from northern Europe.
I can give examples of ways this civilization was able to increase productivity through inventions and
innovations.
Cistercian monks farmed the land as well as worshiped and prayed. They developed many new
farming techniques that helped Europeans grow more crops.
GEOGRAPHY
Relative
Location
I can recognize where on the Earth this civilization was located.
The Byzantine Empire was located in the Mediterranean region and western Asia. It stretched west to Italy, south to
Egypt, and east to the border with Arabia. The capital of Constantinople is now called Istanbul, Turkey.
Physical
Region
Type
I can describe characteristics of this region.
Constantinople was in a hilly region and had a Mediterranean climate. It was situated near the North Anatolian Fault zone,
which was responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city's history.
Human Environment Interactions
I can describe how this society’s human/environment interactions impacted human activities and the environment.
Migrations: When the Roman Empire was declining, the emperor decided to divide the empire in half because he thought
that it would make it easier to govern. Emperor Constantine created an eastern capital at the former Greek city of
Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). When the western half of the Roman Empire fell in
476, the Eastern half survived and thrived. This Eastern half of the Roman Empire later became known as the Byzantine
Empire.
Settlement - One reason for Constantinople's success was its location. It lay on the waterways between the Black Sea and
the Aegean Sea. Its harbors offered a safe shelter for fishing boats, trading ships, and warships.
Trade - Constantinople sat at the crossroads of trade routes between Europe and Asia. The trade that passed through
made the city extremely wealthy.
Activities limited or promoted by environment - Constantinople had a secure land location. Lying on a peninsula,
Constantinople was easily defended. Seas protected it on three sides, and on the fourth side, a huge wall guarded the city.
Later a huge chain was even strung across the city's north harbor for greater protection. Invaders could not easily take
Constantinople.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Biggest Impacts on the future and today’s cultures
I can analyze how this civilization influenced or had lasting impacts on modern societies.
The Byzantines preserved Roman and Greek Culture. When the Roman Empire in the West collapsed in 476, many libraries
and places of learning were destroyed in the chaos and much of the knowledge that had been gained under the Greek and
Roman civilizations was lost. However the eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, survived. As a result
the Byzantine served to preserve much of the Greek and Roman advancements for Western Europe. Most significant was
the preservation of Roman law by Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine's greatest emperor. As a result, these law codes were
preserved and have become the basis for the legal systems of many Western countries, like the US.
The Byzantine Empire lasted approximately 1,000 years. For much of that time, Constantinople was the largest and richest
city in the region. The Byzantines were highly educated and creative. They gave the world new methods in the arts. They
also spread Christianity to people in Eastern Europe.
Two missionaries from the Byzantine Empire, named Cyril and Methodius, traveled into Central and Eastern Europe to
spread the ideas of Christianity to the Slavic people. However, Cyril and Methodius could not teach the Slavs to read the
Bible since they had no written language. As a result the two missionaries created an alphabet that eventually formed the
basis for the Cyrillic alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet is still used today by Russians, Ukrainians, Serbs, and Bulgarians.
The use of icons is still an important part of Eastern Orthodox religious practice.
Today, Christianity is the largest world religion, with about 2 billion followers. It is the majority religion of Europe and the
Americas, and there are churches in almost every nation in the world. There are perhaps thousands of Christian
denominations, all of whom believe in the basic doctrines established at the Council of Nicea but differ in other matters of
doctrine and practice.
Jesus told his listeners to love and forgive each other because God loves and forgives people. Jesus also stressed another
teaching: "Love your neighbor as yourself." Jesus' message of love and forgiveness helped shape the values many people in
Europe and America hold today.
Missionaries of many different religions work around the world today. While sharing their religious message, they also
help the poor and the sick.