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Chapter Opener 4
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Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
Nervous tissue: Internal communication
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves
Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement
• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
• Muscles of heart (cardiac)
• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different
environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
• Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow
organs
• Skin surface (epidermis)
Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds
other tissues together
• Bones
• Tendons
• Fat and other soft padding tissue
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Figure 4.2 Classification of epithelia.
Apical surface
Basal surface
Simple
Apical surface
Basal surface
Stratified
Classification based on number of cell layers.
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Classification based on cell shape.
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Figure 4.2a Classification of epithelia.
Apical surface
Basal surface
Simple
Apical surface
Basal surface
Stratified
Classification based on number of cell layers.
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Figure 4.2b Classification of epithelia.
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Classification based on cell shape.
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Figure 4.3a Epithelial tissues.
Simple squamous epithelium
Description: Single layer of
flattened cells with disc-shaped
central nuclei and sparse
cytoplasm; the simplest of the
epithelia.
Air sacs
of lung
tissue
Nuclei of
squamous
epithelial
cells
Function: Allows materials to pass
by diffusion and filtration in sites
where protection is not important;
secretes lubricating substances in
serosae.
Location: Kidney glomeruli; air
sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood
vessels, and lymphatic vessels;
lining of ventral body cavity
(serosae).
Photomicrograph: Simple squamous
epithelium forming part of the alveolar
(air sac) walls (140x).
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Figure 4.3b Epithelial tissues.
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Description: Single layer of
cubelike cells with large, spherical
central nuclei.
Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cells
Nucleus
Function: Secretion and
absorption.
Basement
membrane
Location: Kidney tubules; ducts
and secretory portions of small
glands; ovary surface.
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal
epithelium in kidney tubules (430x).
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Figure 4.3c Epithelial tissues.
Simple columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of tall
cells with round to oval nuclei;
some cells bear cilia; layer may
contain mucus-secreting
unicellular glands (goblet cells).
Microvilli
Simple
columnar
epithelial
cell
Function: Absorption; secretion
of mucus, enzymes, and other
substances; ciliated type propels
mucus (or reproductive cells) by
ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type lines
most of the digestive tract
(stomach to rectum), gallbladder,
and excretory ducts of some
glands; ciliated variety lines small
bronchi, uterine tubes, and some
regions of the uterus.
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Mucus of
goblet cell
Basement
membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar
epithelium of the small intestine mucosa (660x).
Figure 4.3d Epithelial tissues.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of cells
of differing heights, some not
reaching the free surface; nuclei
seen at different levels; may
contain mucus-secreting cells
and bear cilia.
Cilia
Pseudostratified
epithelial
layer
Function: Secrete substances,
particularly mucus; propulsion of
mucus by ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type in
male’s sperm-carrying ducts and
ducts of large glands; ciliated
variety lines the trachea, most of
the upper respiratory tract.
Trachea
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Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium lining the
human trachea (800x).
Basement
membrane
Figure 4.3e Epithelial tissues.
Stratified squamous epithelium
Description: Thick membrane
composed of several cell layers;
basal cells are cuboidal or
columnar and metabolically active;
surface cells are flattened
(squamous); in the keratinized
type, the surface cells are full of
keratin and dead; basal cells are
active in mitosis and produce the
cells of the more superficial layers.
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Function: Protects underlying
tissues in areas subjected to
abrasion.
Location: Nonkeratinized type
forms the moist linings of the
esophagus, mouth, and vagina;
keratinized variety forms the
epidermis of the skin, a dry
membrane.
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Nuclei
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous
epithelium lining the esophagus (285x).
Figure 4.3f Epithelial tissues.
Transitional epithelium
Description: Resembles both
stratified squamous and stratified
cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or
columnar; surface cells dome
shaped or squamouslike,
depending on degree of organ
stretch.
Transitional
epithelium
Function: Stretches readily,
permits stored urine to distend
urinary organ.
Location: Lines the ureters,
bladder, and part of the urethra.
Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium
lining the bladder, relaxed state (360x); note the
bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the cells at
the surface; these cells flatten and elongate
when the bladder fills with urine.
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Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
Figure 4.4 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Secretory
vesicles
containing
mucin
Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
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Figure 4.4a Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Secretory
vesicles
containing
mucin
Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
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Figure 4.4b Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Secretory
vesicles
containing
mucin
Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands.
Simple duct structure
(duct does not branch)
Tubular
secretory
structure
Simple tubular
Example
Intestinal glands
Compound duct structure
(duct branches)
Simple branched
tubular
Example
Compound tubular
Stomach (gastric)
glands
Duodenal glands of small intestine
Example
Alveolar
secretory
structure
Simple alveolar Simple branched
alveolar
Example
No important
example in
humans
Example
Sebaceous (oil) glands
Surface epithelium
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Compound alveolar
Example
Mammary glands
Compound
tubuloalveolar
Example
Salivary glands
Duct
Secretory epithelium
Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands. (1 of 2)
Simple duct structure
(duct does not branch)
Tubular
secretory
structure
Simple tubular
Example
Intestinal glands
Simple branched
tubular
Example
Stomach (gastric)
glands
Alveolar
secretory
structure
Simple alveolar Simple branched
alveolar
Example
No important
example in
humans
Example
Sebaceous (oil) glands
Surface epithelium
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Duct
Secretory epithelium
Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands. (2 of 2)
Compound duct structure
(duct branches)
Tubular
secretory
structure
Compound tubular
Example
Duodenal glands of small intestine
Alveolar
secretory
structure
Compound alveolar
Compound
tubuloalveolar
Example
Example
Mammary glands
Salivary glands
Surface epithelium
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Duct
Secretory epithelium
Figure 4.6 Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
Secretory
cell fragments
Secretory
vesicles
Merocrine glands secrete their
products by exocytosis.
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In holocrine glands, the entire secretory
cell ruptures, releasing secretions and
dead cell fragments.
Figure 4.6a Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
Secretory
vesicles
Merocrine glands secrete their
products by exocytosis.
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Figure 4.6b Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
Secretory
cell fragments
In holocrine glands, the entire secretory
cell ruptures, releasing secretions and
dead cell fragments.
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Figure 4.7 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.
Cell types
Macrophage
Fibroblast
Lymphocyte
Fat cell
Mast cell
Neutrophil
Capillary
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Extracellular
matrix
Ground substance
Fibers
• Collagen fiber
• Elastic fiber
• Reticular fiber
Table 4.1 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues (1 of 2)
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Table 4.1 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues (2 of 2)
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Figure 4.8a Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar
Description: Gel-like matrix with
all three fiber types; cells:
fibroblasts, macrophages, mast
cells, and some white blood cells.
Function: Wraps and cushions
organs; its macrophages
phagocytize bacteria; plays
important role in inflammation;
holds and conveys tissue fluid.
Location: Widely distributed
under epithelia of body, e.g., forms
lamina propria of mucous
membranes; packages organs;
surrounds capillaries.
Elastic
fibers
Ground
substance
Fibroblast
nuclei
Collagen
fibers
Epithelium
Lamina
propria
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Photomicrograph: Areolar connective
tissue, a soft packaging tissue of the body (340x).
Figure 4.8b Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
Description: Matrix as in areolar,
but very sparse; closely packed
adipocytes, or fat cells, have
nucleus pushed to the side by
large fat droplet.
Function: Provides reserve food
fuel; insulates against heat loss;
supports and protects organs.
Nucleus of
adipose
(fat) cell
Location: Under skin in
subcutaneous tissue; around
kidneys and eyeballs; within
abdomen; in breasts.
Adipose
tissue
Fat droplet
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from
the subcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).
Mammary
glands
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Figure 4.8c Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
Description: Network of reticular
fibers in a typical loose ground
substance; reticular cells lie on
the network.
Function: Fibers form a soft
internal skeleton (stroma) that
supports other cell types including
white blood cells, mast cells, and
macrophages.
White blood
cell
(lymphocyte)
Location: Lymphoid organs
(lymph nodes, bone marrow, and
spleen).
Spleen
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Reticular
fibers
Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network
of reticular connective tissue fibers forming
the internal skeleton of the spleen (350x).
Figure 4.8d Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
Description: Primarily parallel
collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;
major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Attaches muscles to
bones or to muscles; attaches
bones to bones; withstands great
tensile stress when pulling force is
applied in one direction.
Collagen
fibers
Location: Tendons, most
ligaments, aponeuroses.
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Shoulder
joint
Ligament
Tendon
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Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective
tissue from a tendon (430x).
Figure 4.8e Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular
Description: Primarily irregularly
arranged collagen fibers; some
elastic fibers; fibroblast is the
major cell type.
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Function: Withstands tension
exerted in many directions;
provides structural strength.
Location: Fibrous capsules of
organs and of joints; dermis of the
skin; submucosa of digestive tract.
Collagen
fibers
Shoulder
joint
Fibrous
joint
capsule
Photomicrograph: Dense irregular connective
tissue from the fibrous capsule of a joint (430x).
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Figure 4.8f Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic
Description: Dense regular
connective tissue containing a
high proportion of elastic fibers.
Function: Allows tissue to recoil
after stretching; maintains pulsatile
flow of blood through arteries; aids
passive recoil of lungs following
inspiration.
Location: Walls of large arteries;
within certain ligaments associated
with the vertebral column; within
the walls of the bronchial tubes.
Elastic
fibers
Aorta
Heart
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Photomicrograph: Elastic connective tissue
in the wall of the aorta (250x).
Figure 4.8g Connective tissues.
Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firm
matrix; collagen fibers form an
imperceptible network;
chondroblasts produce the matrix
and when mature (chondrocytes)
lie in lacunae.
Function: Supports and reinforces;
serves as resilient cushion; resists
compressive stress.
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Location: Forms most of the
embryonic skeleton; covers the
ends of long bones in joint cavities;
forms costal cartilages of the ribs;
cartilages of the nose, trachea, and
larynx.
Costal
cartilages
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Matrix
Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from
a costal cartilage of a rib (470x).
Figure 4.8h Connective tissues.
Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyaline
cartilage, but more elastic fibers
in matrix.
Function: Maintains the shape of
a structure while allowing great
flexibility.
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Matrix
Location: Supports the external
ear (pinna); epiglottis.
Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage from
the human ear pinna; forms the flexible
skeleton of the ear (800x).
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Figure 4.8i Connective tissues.
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to but
less firm than that in hyaline
cartilage; thick collagen fibers
predominate.
Function: Tensile strength allows
it to absorb compressive shock.
Location: Intervertebral discs;
pubic symphysis; discs of knee
joint.
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Intervertebral
discs
Collagen
fiber
Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an
intervertebral disc (125x). Special staining
produced the blue color seen.
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Figure 4.8j Connective tissues.
Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcified
matrix containing many collagen
fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.
Very well vascularized.
Function: Supports and protects
(by enclosing); provides levers for
the muscles to act on; stores
calcium and other minerals and
fat; marrow inside bones is the
site for blood cell formation
(hematopoiesis).
Central
canal
Lacunae
Lamella
Location: Bones
Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view
of bone (125x).
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Figure 4.8k Connective tissues.
Connective tissue: blood
Description: Red and white blood
cells in a fluid matrix (plasma).
Red blood
cells
(erythrocytes)
Function: Transport respiratory
gases, nutrients, wastes, and other
substances.
White blood
cells:
• Lymphocyte
• Neutrophil
Location: Contained within blood
vessels.
Plasma
Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood
(1670x); shows two white blood cells
surrounded by red blood cells.
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Figure 4.9a Muscle tissues.
Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical,
multinucleate cells; obvious
striations.
Part of
muscle
fiber (cell)
Function: Voluntary movement;
locomotion; manipulation of the
environment; facial expression;
voluntary control.
Nuclei
Location: In skeletal muscles
attached to bones or occasionally
to skin.
Striations
Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle
(approx. 440x). Notice the obvious banding
pattern and the fact that these large cells are
multinucleate.
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Figure 4.9b Muscle tissues.
Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching, striated,
generally uninucleate cells that
interdigitate at specialized
junctions (intercalated discs).
Intercalated
discs
Function: As it contracts, it
propels blood into the circulation;
involuntary control.
Striations
Location: The walls of the heart.
Nucleus
Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (900x);
notice the striations, branching of cells, and
the intercalated discs.
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Figure 4.9c Muscle tissues.
Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shaped
cells with central nuclei; no
striations; cells arranged closely
to form sheets.
Function: Propels substances or
objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby)
along internal passageways;
involuntary control.
Nuclei
Location: Mostly in the walls of
hollow organs.
Smooth
muscle
cell
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth
muscle (720x).
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Figure 4.10 Nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue
Description: Neurons are
branching cells; cell processes
that may be quite long extend from
the nucleus-containing cell body;
also contributing to nervous tissue
are nonexcitable supporting cells.
Nuclei of
supporting
cells
Neuron processes Cell body
Axon Dendrites
Cell body
of a neuron
Function: Neurons transmit
electrical signals from sensory
receptors and to effectors (muscles
and glands) which control their
activity; supporting cells support
and protect neurons.
Neuron
processes
Location: Brain, spinal
cord, and nerves.
Photomicrograph: Neurons (350x).
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Figure 4.11 Classes of membranes.
Cutaneous membrane
The cutaneous membrane
(the skin) covers the body surface.
Serous membranes
Serous membranes line body
cavities that are closed to the
exterior.
Cutaneous
membrane (skin)
Parietal
pleura
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line body
cavities that are open to the
exterior.
Visceral
pleura
Visceral
Parietal
pericardium pericardium
Mucosa of
nasal cavity
Mucosa of
mouth
Esophagus
lining
Mucosa of
lung bronchi
Parietal
peritoneum
Visceral
peritoneum
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Figure 4.11a Classes of membranes.
Cutaneous membrane
The cutaneous membrane
(the skin) covers the body surface.
Cutaneous
membrane (skin)
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Figure 4.11b Classes of membranes.
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line body
cavities that are open to the
exterior.
Mucosa of
nasal cavity
Mucosa of
mouth
Esophagus
lining
Mucosa of
lung bronchi
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Figure 4.11c Classes of membranes.
Serous membranes
Serous membranes line body cavities that are
closed to the exterior.
Parietal
pleura
Visceral
pleura
Visceral
Parietal
pericardium pericardium
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Parietal
peritoneum
Visceral
peritoneum
Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.
Scab
Area of
granulation
Blood clot in
tissue in
incised wound
growth
Epidermis
Regenerating epithelium
Regenerated epithelium
Vein
Fibroblast
Macrophage
Migrating
white
blood cell
Inflammatory
Artery
chemicals
1 Inflammation sets the stage:
• Severed blood vessels bleed.
• Inflammatory chemicals are
released.
• Local blood vessels become
more permeable, allowing white
blood cells, fluid, clotting
proteins, and other plasma
proteins to seep into the injured
area.
• Clotting occurs; surface dries
and forms a scab.
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Budding capillary
2 Organization restores the blood
supply:
• The clot is replaced by granulation
tissue, which restores the vascular
supply.
• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers
that bridge the gap.
• Macrophages phagocytize dead and
dying cells and other debris.
• Surface epithelial cells multiply and
migrate over the granulation tissue.
Fibrosed area
3 Regeneration and fibrosis
effect permanent repair:
• The fibrosed area matures
and contracts; the epithelium
thickens.
• A fully regenerated epithelium
with an underlying area of
scar tissue results.
Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (1 of 3)
Scab
Epidermis
Vein
Blood clot in
incised wound
Inflammatory
chemicals
Migrating white
blood cell
Artery
1 Inflammation sets the stage:
• Severed blood vessels bleed.
• Inflammatory chemicals are released.
• Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white blood cells,
fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area.
• Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (2 of 3)
Regenerating
epithelium
Area of
granulation
tissue
ingrowth
Fibroblast
Macrophage
Budding capillary
2 Organization restores the blood supply:
• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores the vascular
supply.
• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that
bridge the gap.
• Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris.
• Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the granulation tissue.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (3 of 3)
Regenerated
epithelium
Fibrosed area
3 Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:
• The fibrosed area matures and
contracts; the epithelium thickens.
• A fully regenerated epithelium with
an underlying area of scar tissue results.
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Figure 4.13 Embryonic germ layers and the primary tissue types they produce.
16-day-old embryo
(dorsal surface view)
Muscle and connective tissue (mostly
from mesoderm)
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
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Epithelium
(from all three
germ layers)
Nervous tissue
(from ectoderm)
Inner lining of
digestive system
(from endoderm)
Closer Look 4.1
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