Download Binomial Nomenclature- system of assigning 2 names to every species

The Classification System
(notes)
The 1st system of Classification was designed by Aristotle over 2,000 years ago. All organisms were
divided into “plants” or “animals.” Animals were placed in one of three categories: walks, swims, or flies.
This system would encounter problems with creatures like flightless birds and frogs, which live both in
water and on land. Also, at Aristotle‟s time, people didn‟t know that organisms could change (evolve) over
time. For example, if an animal evolved to change the place where they lived, his system wouldn‟t show
who they were related to.
Later, Linneaus updated Aristotle‟s system in the 1700‟s. Linnaeus came up with a hierachy of ways to
classify plants and animals. He created many different levels of categories, starting with a few big
categories and branching into more and more specific categories.
What Linnaeus also did was systematically categorize all known organisms. In his system, the more
categories two organisms shared, the more closely related they are. For example, using these systems, you
can see how a tiger, wolf, and lion are related. All of them are in the same big categories, like animals:
mammals: carnivores. But tigers and lions are in the cat family, while wolves are in the canine family.
Thus, lions and tigers are more related than lions and wolves. Today, we use a system very similar to
Linneaus‟s; it‟s just a little more updated. Also, scientists allow the categories to change, so they can fit the
newest evidence about species.
The different levels are called taxa (plural of taxon). The different taxa (levels) are:
Domain (3 domains)
Kingdom (6 kingdoms)
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Domain and Kingdom are the broadest of the taxa. For example all animals are in Domain: Eukarya
kingdom: Animalia. All plants are in the kingdom: Plantae. Species is the most specific level.
Every species is given one official name, called a “scientific name.” In order to give one official name to
every species that any scientist can use regardless of the language they speak, scientists give each species a
“scientific name.” I say “lightning bug,” you say “glow bug,” Bob says “firefly.” We‟re all talking about
the same thing! It‟s official name is the Photuris pyralis.
Binomial Nomenclature- the name of the system where scientists assign a 2-part name to every species
Scientific Name- the species‟s official name, made using binomial nomenclature. Use the genus and
species. Always capitalize the genus. Never capitalize the species. Whenever possible, it should be written
in italics. Examples: Homo sapien (human), Canis lupus (wolf)
Sub Categories - sometimes we want to be more detailed than just 8 levels, we will add in extra levels, like
“sub-orders” and “sub-species.” “Sub” means “below/lesser.” Examples: Tigers are a species. There are
different types of tigers, called sub-species. Panthera tigris altaica (Amur Tiger), Panthera tigris sumatrae
(Sumatran Tiger)
Taxonomy - the study of classification. Taxonomists are scientists who classify new organisms. They
work closely with Evolutionary Biologists to develop an organism‟s phylogeny (evolutionary history).
Using comparative anatomy, embryology, fossil records, and molecular biology, scientists can search for
common ancestors. Using the information about the organism‟s evolutionary history, it is placed in the
correct categories of classification.
phylogenetic tree (a tree-like diagram that shows evolutionary history)
cladogram / cladistic analysis - organisms are classified according to the order they diverged from a
common ancestor, the evolutionary history is shown in a diagram often called a cladogram or a tree.
Cladograms and trees are like the pedigrees studied in genetics. Instead of showing relationships in each
generation, they show relationships of different species (including extinct species).
What‟s the difference between a “tree” and a “cladogram” ? Nothing, really. If they look linear with simple
branches, it‟s often called a cladogram. If there are multiple branches showing a more complex, tree-like
shape, it‟s called a tree. The names can be used interchangeably. (see pictures on p.495-496)
Dichotomous key - a tool used to identify an unknown object (or species). It is written using steps. Each
step has two options. You pick which of the two options match your object and then follow the directions to
guide you to the next step. (Thus it‟s name, di-chotomous, “branching in pairs”) Eventually, if you follow
the key‟s directions, the key will identify the unknown object.
The Evolution of Complexity: single cell prokaryote to multicelluar
eukaryotes
Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years young
Biogenesis: theory that life comes from life
How did life begin? The hypothesis of Oparin and Haldane (the Oparin Hypothesis) was tested by Stanley
Miller in 1953. Miller was able to recreate anaerobic conditions similar to those hypothesized by Oparin and
synthesize organic (life) molecules from inorganic (non-life) molecules using an apparatus he built.
Research on prebiotic origin of organic compounds continues.
Virus: Not a living cell, but rather a protein coat (called a capsid) surrounding genetic material
Genetic material can be DNA or RNA.
Viruses infect host cells in 2 ways:
Lytic cycle - virus injects genes, cell reads genes and follows directions which tell it to make new
viruses, viruses leave the cell, often through lysis (slicing/popping open cell)
Lysogenic cycle - virus injects genes, genes get into the nucleus and are permanently added to the
host cell‟s DNA. Cell continues life as normal (including reproduction). Eventually, some other factor will
cause the infected cells to start reading the virus genes. It then goes into the lytic cycle described above.
Endosymbiosis: the theory that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts first developed when small
prokaryotes lived inside larger prokaryotes. These small prokaryotes might have lived in a symbiotic
relationship with the larger prokaryote, helping each other. Eventually, the small prokaryotes became
organelles instead of self-sustaining individuals. (endo-symbiosis: “internal symbiotic relationship”)
3 Domains
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Eukarya
(prokaryotes)
(prokaryotes)
(eukaryotes)
All Prokayotes:
Reproduce asexually
Single Celled organisms
Cell Wall
No nucleus
No membrane-bound
organelles
(eubacteria)
(archaeabacteria)
(lots of non-bacteria)
Some Prokaryotes:
Autotrophic or Heterotrophic
Move using flagella, slime secretions, spiral motions
Some produce toxins
Some produce endospores and go dormant during extreme/hostile conditions
Prokaryotes can be helpful: fermentation, digestion, biotechnology, nitrogen-fixing, oxygen producing
6 Kingdoms
Domain: Bacteria
1. Kingdom: Eubacteria
- “true bacteria,” your regular, ol‟ bacteria. Have Peptidoglycan in cell wall. They are classified by their
shape (below) and their response to gram staining (gram positive, gram negative)
SHAPES:
Cocci (Sphere) - can occur in chains Streptococcus pneumoniae which can cause Strep throat or
Scarlet Fever, or grapelike clusters Staphylococcus aureus causes Toxic Shock Syndrome
Bacillus (Rod) - ex. Escherichia coli (E.Coli), Lactobacilli species can cause tooth decay, botulism,
typhoid fever, anthrax
Spirilla (Spiral) - ex Cholera, Spirillum (thick spiral), Spirochete (thin spiral) ex Treponema
can cause Syphilis or Lyme disease
Some commonly-referenced bacteria:
Cyanobacteria- photosynthetic bacteria, contain pigments- yellow, red, brown, green, and even
black, some are blue-green. Like plants, they thrive on Phosphates and Nitrates and can have
a Population Bloom if water ways become loaded with fertilizer (process called
Eutrophication) (similar to algae)
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria- grow symbiotically in the roots of plants, fixing atmospheric nitrogen
into ammonia so plants can utilize it.
*Bacteria can be killed using antibiotics which destroy the cell wall, Gram Negative eubacteria have an
extra lipid layer that stops some antibiotics from entering the bacteria.
Domain: Archaea
2. Kingdom: Archaeabacteria
- “ancient bacteria,” No Peptidoglycan in cell wall. Not “true” bacteria; they may actually be more related
to early eukaryotes than to early bacteria. That‟s why they were updated to get their own domain category.
- often called extremophiles - able to live in extreme environments, examples: methanogens (anaerobic/no
oxygen), thermoacidophiles (hot), thermophiles (cold) and halophiles (extra salty).
Domain: Eukarya
3. Kingdom: Protista
The “left-overs” category. If it‟s a eukaryote, but it doesn‟t fit into the other eukaryotic categories, then we
call it a protist or protozoan.
Some are unicellular, some are multicellular.
Some are autotrophic and some are heterotrophic.
There are three groups: plant-like, animal-like, and fungus-like.
3 classifications of Protista:
Plant-like or Algae
- Autotrophic
- Can form elaborate colonies and multicellular structures (kelp and seaweed)
- Unicellular algae are called phytoplankton (“plant plankton”)
- Classified by pigment color, cell wall features, and food storage:
Diatoms (phylum Bacillariophyta), have silica shell, pretty
Dinoflagellates (phylum Pyrrophyta) 2 flagella attached like an L, make it spin!
some are bioluminescent (glows), some make algal blooms (use up oxygen),
some make algal blooms called a red tide (nerve toxins produced)
Euglena (phylum Euglenophyta), weird, plant-like & animal-like,
photosynthetic and heterotrophic, eye-spots, flagella, contractile vacuoles
Yellow-green algae & Golden-brown algae (phylum Chrysophyta)
Brown algae (phylum Phaeophyta), big algae, ex. kelp, seaweed
Red algae (phylum Rhodophyta), can catch enough light to live deep in ocean,
ex. coralline, helps provide the calcium carbonate that stony coral (an animal) needs
to form strong coral reefs
Green algae (phylum Chlorophyta), very diverse group, very close to true plants,
may be evolutionarily linked to plants (plants came from them?)
ex. spirogyra, volvox, desmids
Animal-like or Protozoa - Heterotrophic
- can be classified into different phyla/phylum by modes of movement:
Sarcodines - uses pseudopod - “false foot” (phylum: Sarcodina)
ex. Amoeba, extends pseudopods to move or engulf prey
Ciliates
- uses cilia - (tiny hairs), (phylum: Ciliophora)
ex Paramecium, has oral groove (mouth-ish), contractile vacuoles
(expel excess water to maintain homeostasis/osmotic balance)
Zooflagellates - uses flagella (skinny tail) (phylum: Zoomastigina)
ex Trypanosoma, causes African Sleeping Sickness
Sporozoa
- no movement ability (phylum: Apicomplexia)
all sporozoa are parasitic and make spores to reproduce
ex. Plasmodium, can cause malaria
Fungus-like
- Heterotrophic
- absorbs nutrients directly through cell membrane (like fungi)
- uses spores to reproduce (like fungi)
- cell walls made of cellulose (fungi cell walls made of chitin)
Acellular Slime Molds (phylum: Myxomycota), cycles through haploid and diploid life
stages
Cellular Slime Molds (phylum: Acrasiomycota), cycles through unicellular and
multicellular life stages
Downy Mildew & Water Molds (phylum: Oomycota), looks like mold, but isn‟t a true
fungus, ex. potato blight that caused massive famine in Ireland
Domain: Eukarya
4. Kingdom: Fungi
- All are Eukaryotic, and all are heterotrophs
- Their cell wall is made of chitin (type of protein)
- They digest their food while it‟s outside their body, then they absorb the nutrients into their cells
- Fungi are important part of an ecosystem because they recycle nutrients (decomposers)
- classified by structure and reproductive method
- most are multicellular (unicellular fungi are called yeast)
Body structure:
-Has lots of “chains of cells” (hyphae) which make up the body.
-They have networks of hyphae (mycelium) that branch out of the body into the soil or food-source.
-These networks act sort of like roots, gives more surface area to absorb nutrients.
Nutrition types
- some are saprobes (things that feed on dead or decaying organisms)
- some are parasites (feed off a living host)
- some are mutualistic (work with other species, ex. plant gives fungi sugar, fungi gives plants nutrients)
Reproduction: (variety of sexual or asexual methods)
- asexual: budding, fragmentation, spores (haploid cell that leaves and grows into a haploid organism)
- sexual reproduction (two haploid cells come together, variety of methods)
4 Types of Fungi:
Chytrids
- (phylum Chytridiomycota), all unicellular, usually aquatic, can make
spores with flagella, may be the first fungi that developed from early fungilike protists, ex. yeast, athletes foot fungus
Common Molds - (phylum Zygomycota), all multicellular, usually terrestrial, look tiny &
fuzzy, spread across food and spread rhizoids (type of hyphae) into food
almost like roots, ex. mold on bread
Club Fungi - (phylum Basidiomycota), most multicellular, usually terrestrial,
ex. mushrooms
Sac Fungi
- (phylum Ascomycota), most multicellular, has largest variety of species
*Lichens - a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic organisms like algae
- fungi provides algae with shelter and nutrients, algae makes sugar to give fungi food
Domain Eukarya
5. Kingdom: Plantae
- all Multicellular, & Eukaryotic,
- most are photosynthetic and have something that anchors them to surfaces
- Cell wall made of cellulose (a type of polysaccharide)
- Not capable of movement
- Reproduce sexually, some produce spores and others produce seeds. Some can reproduce asexually.
Land Life is harsh, here are some plant adaptations that help (not all plants have these):
cuticle - lipid coating on outside of plant, seals in moisture
stomata - holes in leaf to allow gas exchange, can be opened and closed
vascular tissues - specialized tubes that transport stuff up and down plant faster
(xylem - nutrients up) (phloem - sugars all over), they also provide physical support
pollen - sperm that don‟t need water to travel
seeds - protective „house‟ for baby plants, contains embryo, nutrients, & protective coat
Plant Kingdom “tree/cladogram”: (it‟s super crazy) (look at both trees on p.608 and p.610)
Plants
Nonvascular
- bryophytes (mosses)
- anthocerophytes (hornworts)
- hepaticophytes (liverworts)
Vascular
Seedless Plants
- lycophytes (club mosses)
- pterophytes (ferns & horsetails)
Seed Plants
Gymnosperms
- cycadophytes (cycads)
- ginkgophytes (ginkgoes)
- coniferophytes (conifers)
Angiosperms
-anthophyta
(flowers)
monocots, dicots, eudicots
Angiosperms: reproductive structure is the flower, seeds are surrounded by fleshy fruit (peaches, oranges)
or dry fruit (walnuts, grains) that ripen to encourage animals to disperse the seeds. (fruit is the ripened ovary
of the flower)
Monocots – with one seed leaf and parallel veins on the leaf
(cotyledon=seed leaf)
Dicots - with two seed leaves and branched veins on the leaf
Symbiotic relations ships:
Plants and Bacteria (legumes like soybeans & nitrogen-fixing bacteria)
Flower patterns, colors, and scents that attract specific pollinators
Fruits promote seed dispersal by offering a sweet reward to animals. (eat apple, poop out seeds)
More Plant Adaptations:
hormones that control various things
nastic response - temporary responses (venus flytrap, sunflower always faces sun)
trophic responses - growth response
* phototropism (grows toward light)
* geotropism (grows toward or away from gravity)
* thigmotropism (grows toward surface-touch)
specialized leaves (needles, spines, fuzzy, waxy)
specialized seed capsules (wind, float, food, wings, burrs, sticky)
toxin production - deter eating, deter competition
Domain: Eukarya
6. Animalia
- all are multicellular and eukaryotic,
- never a cell wall, heterotrophs, capable of movement,
- most reproduce sexually, some asexually
- most are invertebrates (no backbone), many of those invertebrates have exoskeletons
- most are motile
Animals evolved from simple, tissue-less creatures (like sponges) to organisms with increasingly complex
body systems. With new developments in the body, animals were able to evolve amazing motility. (Animals
are impressive compared to other kingdoms because they have evolved complex organ systems and the
ability to make complex movements.)
There are 35-36 phyla in the animal kingdom to date. Our recent developments into DNA testing is causing
a lot of new information, which is considered more reliable for evolutionary comparison. Some animal
groupings are likely to undergo re-arrangement in the near future.
ANIMAL KINGDOM TREE
no “true” tissues
- (page 699) (it does not include all of the phyla)
tissues
radial symmetry
Coelom=body cavity (p.701)
acoelomate=no cavity (filled with mesoderm)
pseudocoelom=false/fake (cavity is between
endoderm and mesoderm)
coelom (cavity within the mesoderm, cavity lined
by mesoderm on all sides) (can have more complex
organs and movement)
bilateral symmetry
acoelomate
body cavity
pseudocoelom
coelom
protostome
(segmentation)
deuterostome
(segmentation)
sponges cnidarians flatworms roundworms rotifers mollusks annelids arthropods echinoderms chordates
- - - - - KEY TERMS (to understand animal kingdom tree) - - - - Tissues: a collection of similar cells working together for a specific purpose (tissueorganorgan system)
asymmetry - no symmetry, only sponges have this body “plan”
radial symmetry: slice like pizza, each slice is equal (has symmetry when sliced by multiple planes
sharing a common axis), ex. starfish, jellyfish
bilateral symmetry: can be split once, each side equal (only one plane can divide the body into
symmetrical halves), ex. worms, people, dogs
- Cephalization - having a linear body plan with nerves and senses concentrated at one end
(the anterior end), animal moves anterior end first (head first) so they can
encounter new stimuli with its best senses
- Sides: anterior (head), posterior (tail), dorsal (back), ventral (belly)
- Gut - tube that runs through body, saclike gut = one opening, tubelike gut = 2 openings
Ectoderm (outer layers), Mesoderm (middle layers), Endoderm (inner layers) (development terms)
Body Cavity - liquid filled area between your outer layers and inner layers
Coelom - body cavity surrounded by mesoderm, allows for more complex organs to develop
Pseudocoelom - false/fake coelom - cavity not surrounded by mesoderm, complex development is limited
Different ways to develop a gut (picture p.702):
- Protostomes - first dent in embryonic ball becomes mouth, & very early on cells are locked into
their “path” to specific jobs, removing one cell would cause parts to be missing on the organism
- Deuterostomes - first dent in embryonic ball becomes an anus, & cells aren‟t locked into
their “path” until a little later in development, removing one cell early on would not cause
problems, new organism would form (identical twins)
Segmentation - having a body plan that has repeating similar parts (sections, or segments);
this can allow for more advanced movement since each segment can move independently
from others (one does not affect all others) (flexing my wrist does not affect the rest of my arm)
Invertebrates: 8 phyla
Porifera- two cell layers, filter feeders, no true tissues or organs, ex. sponges
Cnidarians- Stinging cells, radial symmetry, simple nervous system only stimulus and response,
central cavity with only one body opening (saclike gut), ex. jellyfish, coral, hydra, sea anemone
Plathyhelmenthes, flat worms, - only one body opening, three cell layers, ex. Tapeworm, Fluke,
Planarian, some Marine worms
Nematode, round worms, - first with two body openings (tubelike gut), 3 cell layers, many parasitic,
cylinder body shape, tapered at both ends, ex. Heartworm, Roundworm
Annelid, segmented worms, two body openings, 3 cell layers, beginning of circulatory system, and
digestive system (crop), ex. Earthworm and Leech
Mollusk, - soft body with shell (usually external shell), more complex body systems developing, eyes
and nervous system, levels of communication beyond stimulus and response, 3 classes include: Gastropod
(spiral shell with one foot), Cephalopod (internal shell, foot is divided into many tentacles), Bivalve (has a
two-part hinged outer shell)
Arthropod, (the “armored animals”) jointed legs, exoskeleton, body sections (ex. head, thorax,
abdomen), metamorphosis (complete or incomplete), molting, 4 classes include:
Insect - 6 legs, 3 body sections, 2 antennae, often has 2 sets of wings (ant)
Arachnid - 2 body segments, 8 legs plus 2 pairs of modified appendages (1 pair for mouth like pinchers or fangs, 1 pair used to hold prey) (spider, horseshoe crab),
Crustacean - 10 legs, 2 segments, 2 sets/pairs of antennae, 2 eyes on stalks, mandibles move
sideways instead of vertical, often first pair of legs are claws (crab, lobster, barnacles),
Myrapods - many legs, many segments, 2 or 4 legs per segment (ummm… obvious)
Echinoderm, all have radial symmetry, spiny skin, tube feet (many little suction-cup tiny tubes, often
along the bottom of the body), first to have endoskeleton (made of calcium plates covered by thin skin)
(some have an exoskeleton called a “test” similar to a shell), found only in marine environments,
ex. Sea urchin, Sand dollar, Starfish, Sea cucumber*(*he‟s weird)
Chordates - all chordates, at some time in their life/development, have: hollow dorsal nerve chord,
notochord (support structure that runs under nerve chord), postanal tail (can have more powerful movements
to propel through water), pharyngeal pouches (filter feeding, gills)
Invertebrate Chordates - ex. lancelets, tunicates
Vertebrate Chordates (all vertebrates are Chordates)
- notochord becomes protective structure (bone or cartilage), complex body systems, sexual reproduction
(internal or external fertilization)
5 classes include:
o Fish, moist skin covered in scales, gills to breathe, 2 chambered heart, cold blooded,
3 types: 1. bony fish - “regular fish” with bone skeleton 2. jawless fish - “primitive fish” ex.
Lamprey, Hagfish and 3. cartilaginous fish - scales are really small, hard to see, cartilage
skeleton, ex. Sharks and Rays
<<evolution of limbs for land life, early tetrapods developed from lobe-finned fish>>
o Amphibian, cold blooded, 3 chambered heart, smooth moist skin, “double life” = aquatic young
with gills develops into terrestrial adult with lungs, ex. salamander, newts, frogs, and toads,
caecilians*(* he‟s weird)
<<<evolution of amniotic embryos - have amnion - a sac surrounding the embryo that baths it in an
aquatic environment>>>
o Reptile, cold blooded, 3 chambered heart, dry leathery skin with scales, amniotic & terrestrial
eggs, (amniotic eggs -) ex. turtles, crocodiles
<<<<evolution of feathers for birds, not mammals (from amniotic tetrapods) (feathers are
outgrowths of skin made from keratin, just like hair on mammals) >>>>
o Bird, warm blooded, 4 chambered heart, hollow bones, body with feathers, scales on legs, lays
amniotic & terrestrial eggs,
<<<<evolution of mammary glands & hair for mammals, not birds (from amniotic tetrapods)>>>>
o Mammal, warm blooded, 4 chambered heart, milk producers, body with hair/fur
3 general categories: Placental (live birth), Marsupial (pouch) and Monotremes (egg)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Animal Behaviors and Adaptations:
Innate Behaviors (genetically based)
1. Instincts- complex pattern of innate behaviors, reflexes, fight or flight, courtships, species
recognition, fixed action patterns
Learned Behaviors:
1. Habituation- getting used to a stimulus - animal decreases its reaction to a stimulus when it happens
frequently and they learn there‟s no need to react
2. Classical Conditioning - when you learn to associate two unrelated stimuli, Pavlov‟s dogs
3. Operant Conditioning - when you associate your response to a stimulus with a reward or
punishment, ex. monarch butterflies
4. Imprinting – permanent learning that occurs within a specific time period, ex. baby birds that
imprint on a parent, sea turtles that return to their place of birth to reproduce
5. Cognitive Behavior - high level thinking and learning, problem solving, planning ahead, evaluating
Ecological Behaviors: (they can overlap)
1. Competition
- agnostic behavior - a per occurrence competition that awards territory or mates or resources, etc.
ex. deer fighting for mates, next year the fights start over
- dominance behavior - a group establishes a ranking system to award resources, once established,
not much changes so fighting is reduced
- Territory behaviors - attempting to control a certain area of resources
2. Foraging Behavior - ways to find and eat food, want more food for minimal effort
3. Migration- moving long distances to a new location on a seasonal basis
4. Rhythmic Behavior - behaviors repeated on a rhythmic basis
- circadian rhythm - daily behavior, ex. sleep
5. Communication - ex. visual, auditory, pheromones
6. Courting & Nurturing - ex. mating dances, or protecting and feeding young
7. Cooperative Behavior - those of the same species helping each other or the group as a whole
- altruistic behavior - helping someone else, at a cost to yourself (good for them, bad for you, = good
for the group)
- kin selection - behavior that may not help you survive, but helps others similar to you survive (your
kin). this means genes like yours are passed on
Visual Adaptations
Camouflage Adaptations - color or pattern that helps hide you from predators
o Disruptive- ex zebra
o Cryptic- ex chameleon and squid
o Countershading- ex Fish have light belly and dark back
Warning Coloration - bright colors signal toxic traits
Mimicry - mimicking the look of others, ex. toxic monarchs have warning coloration, many other
butterflies look like monarchs but are not toxic