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16 C H A P T E R I N Foreign Policy KEY TERMS coalition An alliance of nations formed to undertake a foreign policy action, particularly a military action. A coalition is often a temporary alliance that dissolves after the action is concluded. 356 Cold War The war of words, warnings, and ideologies between the Soviet Union and the United States that lasted from the late 1940s through the early 1990s. 351 colonial empire A group of dependent nations that are under the rule of a single imperial power. 350 containment A U.S. policy designed to contain the spread of communism by offering military and economic aid to threatened nations. 351 Cuban missile crisis A nuclear stand-off that occurred in 1962 when the United States learned that the Soviet Union had placed nuclear warheads in Cuba, ninety miles off the U.S. coast. The crisis was defused diplomatically, but it is generally considered the closest the two Cold War superpowers came to a nuclear confrontation. 352 détente French word meaning a “relaxation of tensions.” Détente characterized the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s, as the two Cold War rivals attempted to pursue cooperative dealings and arms control. 352 deterrence A policy of building up military strength for the purpose of discouraging (deterring) military attacks by other nations; the policy of “building weapons for peace” that supported the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. 352 foreign policy A systematic and general plan that guides a country’s attitudes and actions toward the rest of the world. Foreign policy includes all of the economic, military, commercial, and diplomatic positions and actions that a nation takes in its relationships with other countries. 347 interventionism Direct involvement by one country in another country’s affairs. 350 iron curtain A phrase coined by Winston Churchill to describe the political boundaries between the democratic countries in Western Europe and the Soviet-controlled Communist countries in Eastern Europe. 351 isolationism A political policy of noninvolvement in world affairs. 349 Marshall Plan A plan providing for U.S. economic assistance to European nations following World War II to help those nations recover from the war; the plan was named after George C. Marshall, secretary of state from 1947 to 1949. 351 QUIZ 1. True or False: The Department of State is, in principle, the government agency most directly involved in foreign policy. 2. The nation’s founders and early presidents believed that ____ was the best way to protect American interests. a. interventionism b. containment c. isolationism d. deterrence e. mutually assured destruction c. Iran d. North Korea e. Cuba 4. True or False: In 2001, following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the U.S. military attacked al Qaeda camps in Iraq and the ruling Taliban regime that harbored those terrorists. 5. True or False: Israel and its Arab neighbors have had long-running conflicts, but they have never escalated into war. 3. During the Cuban missile crisis, the United States and ____ came close to a nuclear confrontation. a. the Soviet Union b. Pakistan SUMMARY & OBJECTIVES LO1 Discuss how foreign policy is made and identify the key players in this process. 1 Foreign policy includes all of the © AP PHOTO/ANDY WONG REVIEW economic, military, commercial, and diplomatic positions and actions that a nation takes in its relationships with other countries. American foreign policy has been shaped by the principles of moral idealism and political realism. 2 The president oversees the military, guides defense policies, and represents the United States to the rest of the world. The Department of State is responsible for diplomatic relations with other nations and with multilateral organizations. The Department of Defense establishes and carries out defense policy and protects our national security. Other agencies, including the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency, are also involved in U.S. foreign relations. Congress has the power to declare war and the power to appropriate funds to equip the armed forces and provide for foreign aid. The Senate has the power to ratify treaties. A few congressional committees are directly concerned with foreign affairs. LO2 Summarize the history of American foreign policy through the years. 3 Early U.S. leaders sought to protect American interests through isolationism. After the Spanish-American War of 1898, which marked the first step toward interventionism, the United States acquired a colonial empire and was acknowledged as a world power. 4 When World War I broke out, the U.S. initially adopted a policy of neutrality, and after the war, returned to a policy of isolationism until the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. After World War II ended in 1945, the wartime alliance between the U.S. and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate. Many Americans considered Soviet attempts to spread Communist systems to other countries a major threat to democracy. The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan marked the beginning of a policy of containment. 5 During the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race that was supported by a policy of deterrence, and out of that policy came the theory of mutually assured destruction (MAD). In 1962, the U.S. and the LO3 Identify the foreign policy challenges presented by terrorism and the consequences of the “Bush doctrine” with respect to Iraq. 6 Terrorist attacks have occurred with increasing frequency during the past three decades. After the attacks on September 11, 2001, the U.S. military, supported by a coalition of allies, attacked al Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and the ruling Taliban regime that harbored those terrorists. 7 In 2002, President George W. Bush described Iraq as a regime that sponsored terrorism and that sought to develop weapons of mass destruction. He enunciated a doctrine under which the United States was prepared to strike “preemptively” at Iraq. 8 The invasion of Iraq in 2003, in what was a preventive war rather than a preemptive war, succeeded in deposing the Iraqi dictator, Saddam Hussein. 9 In 2005, Iraqi voters chose a new government in the first free elections for half a century, but Iraq appeared to be drifting toward interethnic civil war. A “surge” of U.S. troops in 2007 and counterinsurgency tactics helped to improve the situation. In 2010, U.S. combat forces left Iraq. LO4 Describe the principal issues dividing the Israelis and the Palestinians and the solutions proposed by the international community. 10 Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, a large number of Palestinians—Arab residents of the Holy Land—were forced into exile. The aftermath of another war in 1967 gave rise to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a nonstate body committed to armed struggle against Israel. The West Bank of the Jordan River and the Gaza Strip fell under Israeli control, and the Palestinians living in these areas became an occupied people. Palestinian terrorist attacks on Israel and Israeli settlements in the occupied territories have impeded any efforts toward peace. 11 The international community has been in agreement on several principles for settling the conflict. Lands seized in the 1967 war should be granted to the Palestinians, who could organize their own independent nation-state there. In turn, the Palestinians would have to recognize Israel’s right to exist and take concrete steps to guarantee Israel’s security. In 1993, Israel and the PLO met officially for the first time in Oslo, Norway. A major result of the Oslo Accords was the establishment of a Palestinian Authority, under Israeli control, on the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Further attempts to reach a settlement collapsed in acrimony. 12 In 2007, Gaza was taken over by Hamas, a radical Islamist party that refuses to recognize Israel. The Palestinian Authority again became an effective government on the West Bank, however, and in 2010, peace talks were restarted. LO5 Outline some of the actions taken by the United States to curb the threat of nuclear weapons. 13 The pursuit of nuclear technology in North Korea and Iran is of major concern to the United States. Neither weapons inspections nor talks that have included China, Japan, North Korea, Russia, South Korea, and the United States have resolved the issue of North Korea’s nuclear ambitions. North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006 and 2009, and in 2009 it tested a long-range missile as well. 14 Iran has made considerable progress in many aspects of its nuclear program, and, like North Korea, has been openly hostile to the U.S. The United Nations has imposed sanctions on Iran in an attempt to curb its nuclear ambitions. In 2009, a round of talks involving Britain, China, France, Germany, Iran, Russia, and the United States was begun to discuss Iran’s nuclear program. Some observers see the talks as a way for the Iranians to play for time as they develop their nuclear capabilities. LO6 Discuss China’s emerging role as a world leader. 15 China may be destined to challenge American global supremacy. China has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world and a population of 1.3 billion. Congress has granted China normal trade relations status, and many Americans are concerned that low-cost imports from China are preventing the U.S. economy from enjoying a vigorous recovery. Although China has not shown ambitions to acquire more territory or become militarily aggressive, it has expressed a desire to take control of the island of Taiwan, a former Chinese province that has functioned since 1949 as if it were an independent nation. Find more practice tests and study tools for this chapter on CourseMate. Monroe Doctrine A U.S. policy, announced in 1823 by President James Monroe, that the United States would not tolerate foreign intervention in the Western Hemisphere, and in return, the United States would stay out of European affairs. 349 Moral idealism In foreign policy, the belief that the most important goal is to do what is right. Moral idealists think that it is possible for nations to cooperate as part of a rule-based community. 347 mutually assured destruction (MAD) A phrase referring to the assumption, on which the policy of deterrence was based, that if the forces of two nations are equally capable of destroying each other, neither nation will take a chance on war. 352 neoconservatism A philosophy of foreign policy based on moral idealism. Neoconservatives support the use of economic and military power to bring democracy and human rights to other countries. 356 neutrality A position of not being aligned with either side in a dispute or conflict, such as a war. 350 normal trade relations (NTR) status A trade status granted through an international treaty by which each member nation must treat other members at least as well as it treats the country that receives its most favorable treatment. This status was formerly known as most-favorednation status. 362 Oslo Accords The first agreement signed between Israel and the PLO; led to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in the occupied territories. 359 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) An organization formed in 1964 to represent the Palestinian people. The PLO has a long history of terrorism but for some years has functioned primarily as a political party. 358 political realism In foreign policy, the belief that nations are inevitably selfish, and that we should seek to protect our national security regardless of moral arguments. 347 preemptive war A war launched by a nation to prevent an imminent attack by another nation. 356 preventive war A war launched by a nation to prevent the possibility that another nation might attack at some point in the future; not supported by international law. 356 Soviet bloc The group of Eastern European nations that fell under the control of the Soviet Union following World War II. 350 weapons of mass destruction Chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons that can inflict massive casualties. 356 Quiz Answers: 1. True; 2. c; 3. a; 4. False; 5. False Soviet Union came close to a nuclear confrontation during the Cuban missile crisis. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 altered the framework and goals of U.S. foreign policy.