Download Memory 2016

Cognition
7A – Memory
7B – Thinking, Problems Solving,
Creativity, and Language
Memory
Memory - the
of
over time through the
of information.
Examples:
The Memory Process
Basic three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing of
information into the memory system.
– Example:
2. Storage: The retention of encoded
material over time.
– Example:
3. Retrieval: The process of getting the
information out of memory storage.
– Example:
3 Memory Models
1. Atkinson-Shiffrin 3
stage model
2. Modified AtkinsonShiffrin
3. Connectivism Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 3 Step Model of
Memory
1.
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
• Example:
2. Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before
info is forgotten unless consciously activated
• Example –
3. Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of
memory.
• Examples:
Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin modified
(3 Stage) Model
• 2 New concepts
1. Working Memory – active processing
that combines novel (?) or important
info along with info retrieved from
– Instead of short-term memory being
just a 20 sec. holding tank, this
model includes the ability to briefly
info
– Example –
2. Some info skips the 1st two stages
in Atkinson’s/Shiffrins and is
processed
Modified Three-stage Model of
Memory
Connectionism Model of Memory
• Connectionism – theory that states that memory is
stored throughout the brain in connections between
neurons
– Many neurons may work together to process a single memory
• memory emerges from particular
• retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on
each of the elements of the pattern
How We Encode
2 Ways of Encoding
1. Automatically Processing
2. Effortful processing
–
Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing -
encoding of incidental information
– Examples:
– Time – day’s sequence of events, and remembering
– space – place on
– Frequency – number of times you saw
– well learned info – understand every
– Unique or engaging info –
out
effect; things that stand
Automatic Processing
• Parallel Processing – processing of
many things
– Allows many sensory experiences to be
encoded all at once, some
some with effort
– Example:
Encoding – Effortful
Processing
1. Effortful Processing –
encoding that requires
and attention
– Example:
• Rehearsal – conscious
of info to encode it for
storage
– Example:
Ebbinghaus’s Retention Curve
• Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount
remembered depends on the
– Used nonsense syllabus to study
memory
– JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX SUJ, XIR
– The more time you rehearse on
day 1, the less time it takes to
relearn the info on day 2
• Overlearning –
rehearsal after we learn
material increases retention
Effortful Processing
• Spacing effect –
better for long-term recall than
massed study (cramming)
is
– DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
– Example:
• Testing effect –
quizzing or
testing improves retention
– Example:
Encoding Information
• Serial Positioning Effect – we tend
to remember the
and
items
on a list
– Primacy Effect – remember items at the
• Occurs because of
• Example: .
– Recency Effect – remembering items at
the
• Occurs because of
• Example:
– Rostorff effect – remembering
a list
• Example:
items on
What We Encode…
Encoding Exercise
1. Visual Encoding: the encoding of
Example –
2. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of
Example:
3. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of
Example:
Levels of Processing Theory
Levels of Processing Theory (Craik and
Lockhart) – three ways of encoding
information:
• the way information is encoded affects
how well it is remembered. The deeper
the
(semantic),
the easier the information is to recall.
Levels of Processing Theory
• Shallow Processing – encoding with no
1.
Structural processing – encode only physical properties of a
1.
Phonetic processing – encode how the words
sounds like nur-ron a little like moron)
• Deep Processing – encoding with
remember)
3. Semantic processing – encode the
relate it to words with similar
• Elaborative Rehearsal –
(neuron
(more likely to
of the word and
– Example: "neuron." - look up what it means (nerve cell),
find out its purpose (transmit information from/to the
central nervous system), look at a diagram and study its
parts, and think about how it relates to things that you
already know (like how similar its firing is to a toilet
flushing).
Encoding Exercise
Visual Encoding
– Imagery – visual images help us remember
Example: Ipod, process, college, claim, neuron
– Rosy Retrospection – recalling
,
forgetting the worst
• Example: After a trip to Disney World, you
remember meeting Mickey, Space Mountain, the
turkey leg you ate, but forget
Encoding Exercise
Mneumonics
– Mnemonic Devices – ANY memory aid that
uses visual
and clever ways of
• EXAMPLES:
1. Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
and using imagery to associate items
with the jingle
»
2. Method of Loci – use visual information
with familiar objects on a path to
recall info on a list
»
Example:
Encoding Exercise
Mneumonics
3. Hierarchies – broad
concepts divided and
subdivided into
narrower concepts and
facts
• Example:
4. Chunking - Organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units
(acronyms)
• Example:
1-800-IBM-HELP (Chunking)
Every Good Boy Does Fine
(Acrostic)
(Acronym)
Acoustic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding
•Example:
Semantic Encoding
• Semantic Encoding
• Examples:
• Self Reference Effect – the tendency to
remember information that is
compared to less personally relevant
information
• Example:
Comparing Types of Encoding
• You’re given the word
EXTROVERTED, which of the
following is an example of Visual,
Acoustic, Semantic Encoding?
– The word
– The word
– The word
– The word
consists of 10 letters
rhymes with perverted
written in capitals
describes you well
• Which would you remember better?
Storage
Types of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
Iconic
Echoic
–
–
2. Working Memory/Short-term
3. Long-Term Memory
Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory
–
• Conditioned Memories
Explicit Memory
–
•
•
•
•
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Flashbulb Memories
Prospective memory
Sensory Memory
• Sensory Memory - A
split
holding tank for ALL
information
• Examples:.
– Iconic Memory –
Echoic Memory –
Sensory Memory
• Sperling’s memory experiment
– Momentary photographic memory
• After flashing an image, participants had a momentary
mental image of all 9 letters
• http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/psychsim5/launcher.html
• Iconic memory –
image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a
second
– A momentary mental image that remains after the image is
gone
– Example:
Sensory Memory
• Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting
no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo
chamber)
– A momentary
– Example:
Short Term/Working Memory
• Short –term memory
–
–
• Holds items for about
seconds without rehearsal
• holds a few items briefly (
digits +/-2) until it is forgotten or
stored
– Encoded visually, acoustically
or semantically through
rehearsal.
– Maintenance Rehearsal
•
– Example –
Working/Short-Term Memory
• Duration – Brief (
active processing
sec or less)
– Slightly better for
–
better than
• Capacity - Limited
– Magic number Seven
• 5-9 bits of information, ave. = 7
• The list of magic sevens
–
–
–
–
–
–
Seven
Seven
Seven
Seven
Seven
Seven
wonders of world
seas
deadly sins
primary colors
musical scale notes
days of the week
info than
info
Types of Long Term Memory
• Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory
– Conditioned Memories
• Explicit Memory
– Episodic Memory
– Semantic Memory
– Flashbulb Memory
– Prospective Memory
Long Term Memory
• Long-term memory storehouse of
knowledge, skills and
experiences.
– Unlimited capacity
– Relatively
– Organized and indexed
• Examples:
– Explicit
– Implicit
Types of Long-Term Memory
Implicit Memories
• Implicit/Procedural Memories –
recall
– Processed by
and
other brain areas
 still intact with anterograde
amnesia
• Examples:
– Conditioned Memories –
memories from
• Example:
Explicit Memories
• Explicit Memories – memories of
facts and experiences,
recalled
– Processed by the
• Verbal information is stored in the left
• visual designs are stored in the right
– Infantile amnesia – can’t remember
events before age
•
brain structures to develop
• Example:
is one of the last
Explicit Memories
Episodic Memories - memories of
events,
situations, and experiences
Example:
Semantic Memories – memory of
Example:
Explicit Memories
• Flashbulb Memories – clear moment of
a
significant event
– Facilitated by
– Prolonged stress however, can inhibit
memory formation by
(emotion center of
the brain) boosts activity & proteins into
memory forming areas of the brain
– Example:
–
• Prospective Memory – remembering to
perform a
– Example:
Storing Memories
Memory trace – physical basis for learning and
memory (believed to occur at
Long Term-Potentiation –
synaptic
of a neuron
in
– Neural basis for learning and memory
– Sending neuron needs less prompting; receiving neuron
receptors increase.
– Neurons that fire together wire together…creating a
memory.
– Example:
• Memory boosting drugs
– CREB – proteins that make a cell more likely to keep a
memory
– Glutamate – enhances synaptic communication (LTP) which
strengthens neural connections
Amnesia
• Amnesia – loss of memory
– Loss of
but not
– Retrograde Amnesia – inability
to remember
events
• Example
– Anterograde Amnesia – inability
to create
memories
• Examples:
Retrieval
• Recall - you must
• Recognition - you
the
must
the
information from your
target from possible
memory
targets
• Example:
• Example:
Ways to help you retrieve info
• Relearning – learning material for the
time,
time.
– Example:
• Retrieval Cues – anchor points used
to
retrieval later
– Example:
– Priming –
target info for
associations in memory
activation of
– Example: See a rabbit and asked to
spell
, you spell
Context Matters
• Context-dependent memory memory is more easily
recalled if you are in the
same
that
learning took place
– Example:
• Déjà vu – eerie sense that you’ve
experienced something before
– Example:
The Context Matters!!!
• Mood Congruent Memory – recalling
memories consistent with current mood
– Example:
• State Dependent Memory – learning
that takes place in one
is generally better remembered later
in a similar physiological state
– Example:
Think Pair Share
• How do memory researchers use
context effects to explain both
déjà vu and mood-congruent
memory?
Forgetting
• Encoding Failures
• Storage Decay
• Retrieval Failures
• Interference
Forgetting
• Schacter’s sevens sins of memory
– Sins of Forgetting
• Absent-mindedness –
• Transience – storage
• Blocking – inaccessibility
– Sins of distortion
• Misattribution – confusing the
• Suggestibility – linger effects
• Bias –
colored recollections
– Sin of intrusion
• Persistence – unwanted
Encoding Failure
Example – You can’t remember a
person’s name that you were just
introduced to because you weren’t
paying attention
• Why do they occur?
What should you do to prevent an
encoding failure?
Storage Decay
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Apply the Ebbinghaus curve to Psych Class
Retrieval Failure
Retrieval Failures
•
Retroactive Interference:
information blocks out
information.
– Example:
•
Proactive Interference:
information blocks out
information.
– Example:
•
PORN
•
Positive Transfer –
you learn
info
info helps
– Example:
•
Tip of the tongue phenomenon - the
feeling that a name, word, or phrase-though momentarily unrecallable--is known
and will soon be recalled.
PORN
• Which is it?
– Combination for new locker interferes with your
ability to remember old locker combination
– Former students names interfere with names of
new ones
– Learning AP Psych helps you in Anatomy and
Physiology
– New address is keeping you from remembering
your old address
– Information from your 1st period Bio class is
interfering with information learned in 6 period
Chemistry
Motivated Forgetting
• Motivated Forgetting –
past memories
– Example: Forgetting how much
money I actually
• Repression – (Freud’s
Psychoanalytic Theory)
• A defense mechanism that
painful memories from
consciousness to minimize
– Example: Woman with
unexplained fear of
had repressed a memory of
almost
Think Pair Share
Although you genuinely enjoyed studying
hard for a biology test, during the test you
are feeling frustrated and irritable because
you can't recall the answer to a series of
fairly easy factual questions. Briefly explain
at least two potential causes of your
forgetting.
Constructive Memory
• Constructed memory (Loftus)
aka false memories - a created
memory,
when
encoded or retrieved.
• Caused by:
Misinformation effect
a) Imagination effect
b) Source amnesia
c) Suggestibility
Constructive Memory
• Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading
info into a memory
Examples:
– Suggestibility – incorporating leading
into memory (misrecalling a yield sign as a stop sign);
refreshed memories,
– Imagination Effect/Inflation –
nonexistent actions and events can create false
memories
Example:
•
– Source Amnesia – retaining the memory of an event,
but not the
Example: Someone tells you that eating chocolate is good
for memory, you later recall it as
•
Cognitive Interview Technique – witness visualizes scene,
then recalls without interruption
Lotus Study
• IV?
• Op Def?
• DV?
• Op Def
• Results:
–
of
questions can alter the way
we remember an event
– Memories are not just
replaying events, but rather
new information (false
presumptions) can be
integrated into a memory
–
memories
don’t exist, we tend to
remember traumatic
memories best
Discerning True and False
Memories
• Memory studies – real vs. false
– Real memories have more
– False memories often feel as
– Hypnotically refreshed effect
• Eye witness testimony
– Constructed memories
• Misinformation
• Source Amnesia
• Suggestability
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
• Children’s memories of abuse
Suggestibility – susceptibility to
suggestion
• Children more
than adults to the
effect
– Children more credible if adults have not discussed the issue with
them prior to an interview
• Ask less suggestive and more effective questions to
reduce misinformation effect
– Use neutral words
Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement
– Sexual abuse happens
– Injustice happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are incomplete
– Memories before 3 years are unreliable
– Hypnotic memories are unreliable
– Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Improving Memory Techniques
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to
rehearse it and to help determine what
you do not yet know