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Chapter 6: Learning
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned
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Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as
fear can be taught through classical conditioning.
The Experiment
The Results
• Eleven-month-old Albert was
conditioned to fear a white rat
rather than be amused by it.
• After they paired the rat with loud
noises, Albert showed a fear of the
rat even when there was no noise.
• Psychologists achieved this by
pairing the rat with something
that Albert would find
instinctively frightening.
• By today’s standards, the
experiment was unethical.
• Albert’s fear spread to similar
objects.
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What do you think?
• How did Watson and Rayner condition Little Albert to
fear white rats?
• Do you think you have learned to fear or enjoy certain
things because of conditioning or association? Explain.
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Section 1 at a Glance
Classical Conditioning
• Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research
into a form of learning known as classical conditioning. In
classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response
that is usually caused by another stimulus.
• Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the
environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or
other behaviors.
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Classical Conditioning
Main Idea
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the use of a
stimulus to generate a specific response.
Reading Focus
• What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?
• How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt to the
environment?
• What are some applications of classical conditioning?
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Why do people have
an immediate,
physical response to a
picture of pizza?
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Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Conditioning is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response
connections.
• Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus
calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus.
Pavlov’s Dogs
Stimulus and Response
• Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov used
dogs in his studies of classical
conditioning.
• Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus
that causes a response that is
automatic, not learned
• He trained the dogs to associate the
sound of a bell with food.
• Unconditioned response: caused by
an unconditioned stimulus
• They learned that the sound of the bell
meant food was coming.
• Conditioned response: a learned
response to a neutral stimulus
• Conditioned stimulus: a previously
neutral stimulus that causes a
conditioned response
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Reading Check
Summarize
How does classical conditioning occur?
Answer: One stimulus calls forth the response
that is usually called forth by another stimulus.
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Adapting to the Environment
Taste Aversions
Extinction
• Taste aversion: learned response
to a particular food
• Extinction: Disappearance of
conditioned response when
unconditioned stimulus no longer
follows conditioned stimulus
• One-trial learning
Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery:
Reappearance of an extinguished
conditioned response after some
time has passed
Generalization and
Discrimination
• Generalization: The tendency to
respond in the same way to stimuli
that have similar characteristics
• Discrimination: The act of
responding differently to stimuli that
are not similar to each other
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Reading Check
Describe
Give three examples of ways that classical
conditioning can help people adapt to their
environment.
Answer: Students should cite examples of taste
aversion, extinction, spontaneous recovery,
generalization, or discrimination.
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Applications of Classical Conditioning
Flooding and Systematic
Desensitization
• In flooding, a person is exposed to
the harmless stimulus until fear
responses to that stimulus are
extinguished.
Counterconditioning
• In counterconditioning, a pleasant
stimulus is paired repeatedly with a
fearful one, counteracting the fear.
• With systematic desensitization,
people learn relaxation techniques
and then, while they are relaxed,
they are gradually exposed to the
stimulus they fear.
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Reading Check
Identify
What are three applications of classical
conditioning?
Answer: flooding, systematic desensitization,
counterconditioning
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Current Research in Psychology
Learning from a Virtual Rat
To research learning and conditioning, psychologists often design laboratory
experiments with animals such as rats. But experiments with live animals can
be costly and time-consuming. Why not take advantage of computer
technology and use a virtual rat?
• “Sniffy the Virtual Rat” allows
students to design lab experiments
in a virtual environment with a
virtual rat.
• To create “Sniffy,” researchers
studied how real rats move and
learn.
• A virtual rat is less costly than a
real animal.
• They never get tired, are always
hungry, and learn more quickly,
saving researchers time and effort.
• Students can use the program to
design and run classical
conditioning experiments.
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Thinking Critically
• What are some advantages to using a virtual rat like
Sniffy?
• What drawbacks might there be to using a virtual rat in an
experiment instead of a real one?
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Section 2 at a Glance
Operant Conditioning
• Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a
form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which
individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.
• Operant conditioning depends on the use of
reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.
• The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to
help people or animals learn to combine a series of
simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.
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Operant Conditioning
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to
respond to a certain situation.
Reading Focus
• How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?
• What are the main types of reinforcers?
• How do rewards and punishments shape learning?
• How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?
• What are some applications of operant conditioning?
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Learning
How can a squirrel learn
how to water ski?
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Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain
things—and not to do others—because of the results of what they do.
• They learn from the consequences of their actions.
• In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.
• B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the “Skinner box.”
• His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process by
which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding
behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
• Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people need
to learn new skills.
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Reading Check
Describe
How does reinforcement result in operant
conditioning?
Answer: In operant conditioning, people and
animals learn to do certain things because of the
results of what they do. Reinforcement increases
the chances that such behavior will occur again.
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Types of Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary
Reinforcers
Positive and Negative
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers are
reinforcers that function due to the
biological makeup of an organism.
• Positive reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior.
• Secondary reinforcers are
learned by being paired with
primary reinforcers.
• Money is a secondary reinforcer
because we have learned that it
may be exchanged for primary
reinforcers like food and shelter.
• In positive reinforcement, a person
receives something he or she
wants following the behavior.
• Negative reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior when they
are removed.
• In negative reinforcement, a
behavior is reinforced because
something unwanted stops
happening or is removed following
the behavior.
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Reading Check
Summarize
Describe the four main types of reinforcers.
Answer: Primary reinforcers are those that people and animals do
not need to be taught to value, such as food and water. Secondary
reinforcers, like money, must be learned. Positive reinforcers, such as
food and fun, increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when
they are applied. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the
behavior that follows when they are removed. They are unpleasant,
and include discomfort and fear.
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Learning
Rewards and Punishments
Rewards
Punishments
• Like positive reinforcement,
rewards help encourage learning.
• Punishments are quite different
from negative reinforcers.
• Some psychologists, however,
prefer positive reinforcement
because the concept of
reinforcement can be explained
without trying to guess what an
organism will find rewarding.
• Punishments are unwanted events
that decrease the frequency of the
behavior they follow.
• Punishments tend to work only
when they are guaranteed.
• Most psychologists believe it is
preferable to reward children for
desirable behavior than punish
them for unwanted behavior.
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Reading Check
Contrast
Explain how punishments are different from
negative reinforcers.
Answer: Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a
behavior by being removed, whereas punishments, when
applied, decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of
reinforcement—when and how often the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous and Partial
Reinforcement
Interval Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement is the
reinforcement of a behavior every time
the behavior occurs.
• Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed amount
of time must elapse between
reinforcements
• Continuous reinforcement is not always
practical or possible.
• Variable-interval schedule: varying
amounts of time go by between
reinforcements
• The alternative is partial
reinforcement, which means a
behavior is not reinforced every time the
behavior occurs.
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Ratio Schedule
• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement
occurs after a fixed number of
responses
• Variable-ratio schedule:
reinforcement occurs after a
varying number of responses
Extinction in Operant
Conditioning
•
In operant conditioning, extinction
results from repeated
performances of the response
without reinforcement.
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Reading Check
Infer
Why are both variable-interval schedules
and variable-ratio schedules successful?
Answer: because timing is unpredictable; reinforcement
can come at any time
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Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
Programmed Learning
• Shaping is a way of teaching
complex behaviors in which one
first reinforces small steps in the
total activity.
• Programmed learning is based on
shaping and chaining.
• Chaining is combining the steps of
a sequence to progress toward a
final action.
• Chaining can be forward or
backward.
• Developed by B.F. Skinner, it
assumes that any task can be
broken down into small steps.
• Programmed learning does not
involve punishments.
• Instead, it reinforces correct
responses.
• Chaining can be used to teach
complex behavior patterns to
animals.
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Reading Check
Identify Supporting Details
What are three examples of applications of
operant conditioning?
Answer: shaping, chaining, programmed learning
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Section 3 at a Glance
Cognitive Factors in Learning
• Cognitive psychologists focus on the mental aspects of
learning and are interested in what people or animals
know, not just what they do.
• Cognitive learning is based on the idea that people and
animals can learn by thinking or by watching others.
• Some techniques for behavioral modification are based
on the ideas of operant conditioning and cognitive factors.
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
Main Idea
Cognitive learning focuses on the mental aspects of learning, such as
obtaining, processing, and organizing information. Cognitive
psychologists are interested not only in what people do, but also what
they know.
Reading Focus
• What is latent learning?
• In what situations does observational learning take place?
• What learning principles are involved in behavior modification?
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Learning
What do tamales have to
do with Christmas?
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Latent Learning
• One kind of cognitive learning is latent learning, which is learning
that remains hidden until it is needed.
• Most psychologists believe that much learning takes place without
reinforcement.
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Reading Check
Recall
When is latent learning revealed?
Answer: Latent learning is revealed when it is
needed.
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Observational Learning
• Observational learning is knowledge and skills acquired by
observing and imitating others.
Modeling
The Effects of Media Violence
• Modeling is basically a kind of
imitation.
• Television is a major source of
informal observational learning.
• Vicarious reinforcement is the
ability to learn from the experiences
of another.
• Most health professionals agree
that media violence contributes to
aggression.
• Observational learning and
modeling account for much human
learning.
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Click on the image to play the Interactive.
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Reading Check
Describe
What are three examples of observational
learning?
Answer: child learning to speak, eat, and play from parents
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Behavior Modification
Classroom Discipline
• Teachers are taught to pay attention to students when they are
behaving appropriately and to ignore misbehavior that is not harmful
to themselves or others.
Token Economics
• People are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards that can be
cashed in for treats, merchandise, or privileges.
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Personal Contracts
• A personal contract is a personal behavior modification technique.
• It works by first identifying a behavior you want to change, setting a
goal for a new behavior, and creating a system of rewards or
punishments that encourage the new behavior.
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Learning
Reading Check
Explain
How are learning principles used to modify
behavior?
Answer: classroom discipline—misbehaving students may be
separated from the rest of the class; token economies—people
are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards; personal
contracts—people can create a system of rewards or
punishments to alter their behavior
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Psychology in Today’s World
Pathways to Rewards
Pathways to Rewards is a program that seeks to help improve the lives of
public housing residents in Chicago. The program uses the principles of token
economies and has proved to be highly successful in helping people modify
their behavior through a system of individual goals and rewards.
• The Pathways to Rewards program
is for residents of Henry Horner
Homes in Chicago.
• Residents set monthly goals and
establish the steps needed to reach
them.
• Adults and children may participate
in the program.
• Participants earn points for meeting
their goals.
• The points can be redeemed for
rewards such as merchandise, billpaying assistance, and health club
membership.
• At the end of 2007, 58 percent of
eligible residents had enrolled in
the program.
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Thinking Critically
• Why do you think this program is successful?
• Some people have criticized the Pathways to Rewards
program as being bribes for good behavior. How do you
view this criticism?
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Section 4 at a Glance
The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
• The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work
of educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson.
Robinson believed that students will learn more when
they take an active approach to learning.
• The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview,
question, read, reflect, recite, and review.
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The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Main Idea
The PQ4R method for studying is a system of active learning based on
the work of an educational psychologist.
Reading Focus
• When should you preview and question new material?
• Why is it important to read, review, recite, and reflect on material?
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Learning
Have educational
psychologists created
an easy way to study
and learn new material?
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Preview and Question
Preview
• Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the material
before you start to read.
• Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing.
• Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.
Question
• You can create learning goals by writing questions about the chapter
after you preview it.
• One way to write questions is to read the headings or the first
sentence of each paragraph and write a question about it.
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Reading Check
Compare
How are the steps of previewing and
questioning similar?
Answer: Both take place before a person starts reading.
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Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review
Read
Reflect
• Read the chapter with the goal of
answering the questions you wrote.
• Relate new information to old
information.
• As you read, jot down a few key
words that will remind you of the
answer.
• Relate new information to events in
your own life or to people you
know.
Recite
Review
• After you have answered your
questions, recite the answers out
loud or silently to yourself.
• Learning that occurs regularly and
is distributed over time is
distributed learning.
• You can recite alone or with a study
group. Both are effective.
• Learning that occurs all at one time
is massed learning, or cramming.
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Reading Check
Summarize
What are the “four Rs” in the PQ4R method?
Answer: read, reflect, recite, review
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Experiment: Applying What You’ve Learned
Reinforcement and Discouragement
How can positive reinforcement and discouragement affect people’s
behavior and performance?
1. Introduction
2. Preparing for the Experiment
• You will work with classmates to
conduct an experiment on the
number of sit-ups a person can do
in three different situations: with no
feedback, with positive
reinforcement, and with
discouragement.
• Find about 30 students from
another class to be research
subjects.
• Do not reveal the purpose of the
study.
• Randomly assign the students to
three groups.
• Assign roles for running the
experiment.
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Experiment (con’t.)
3. Conducting the Experiment
4. Analysis and Conclusion
• Follow the Experiment Schedule.
• Compare each participant’s
performance at each station.
• On Day 1, Group A is the control
group.
• On Day 1, Group B will receive
encouragement and positive
reinforcement.
• On Day 1, Group C will receive
discouragement.
• Discuss the experiment with the
study participants.
• Revisit your hypothesis and draw
some conclusions about the effects
of positive reinforcement and
discouragement on behavior.
• On Days 2 and 3, the groups will
rotate to different stations
according to the schedule.
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