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Intermediate 1 and
Intermediate 2 Sociology
Socialisation
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Acknowledgements
The Scottish Further Education Unit (SFEU) gratefully acknowledges the contribution
made to this publication by Learning and Teaching Scotland who have granted
permission to use material previously produced by HSDU.
SFEU also thanks SQA for permission to reproduce parts of the Arrangement documents.
Scottish Further Education Unit
1
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Contents
National Unit Specification: Statement of Standards for
Intermediate 1
Intermediate 2
3
3
6
Recommended Reading
9
Approaches to Learning and Teaching
10
Nature versus Nurture
15
Socialisation
Norms
Values
Roles
Culture
Cultural Differences
29
45
48
55
57
65
Agents of Socialisation
Family
Peer group
Education
Work
Mass Media
Religion
79
80
89
96
104
112
121
Social Order and Socialisation
125
Scottish Further Education Unit
2
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
National Unit Specification: Statement of Standards
Socialisation (Intermediate 1)
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards
set out in this part of the Unit specification. All sections of the statement of standards are
mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications
Authority.
Outcome 1
Describe the relative nature of social norms, values and roles using contrasting
cultures.
Performance criteria
(a)
(b)
(c)
Describe the sociological meanings of social norms, values and roles correctly.
Describe contrasting roles from the UK and other cultures correctly.
Describe social norms from the UK and contrasting cultures correctly.
Outcome 2
Describe the concept of socialisation.
Performance criteria
(a)
(b)
(c)
Describe the ‘nature versus nurture’ debate correctly.
Describe the process of primary and secondary socialisation correctly.
Describe the role of the main agents of socialisation in terms of their
contribution to the socialisation process correctly.
Evidence requirements for the Unit
Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance
Criteria of the Unit for it to be achieved. The assessment should take the form of an
unseen, closed book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It
should be taken on a single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the
form of restricted response questions, and should make use of stimulus material as a tool
with which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed.
The following requirements are mandatory for this Unit.
Scottish Further Education Unit
3
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Introduction to socialisation
Socialisation is a key concept in sociology because it accounts for the diversity of socially
acquired behaviour and it demonstrates the ways in which the culture of a society is
internalised by individuals through socialisation processes and agencies.
The relative nature of social norms, values and roles
Areas discussed at this point should include the following:







the nature versus nurture debate
structural aspects of society that form its culture and influence human behaviour
comparison of three cultures, from cross-cultural, sub-cultural, anthropological or
historical examples
cultural variation within and between societies
social norms and roles relating to gender, age, family/marriage, religion, work and
education
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
The six main agents of socialisation
All of the six main agents of socialisation should be covered in learning and teaching, but
only two require to be assessed for Unit assessment purposes.
The family






nature of the family and the variety of forms it can take within and between societies
changing nature of roles within the family
family as an agency of social control
changing patterns of family life
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Peer groups





nature of peer groups
influence of peer groups in shaping values, attitudes and behaviour
relationship between peer groups and other agencies of socialisation
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Scottish Further Education Unit
4
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Education






formal and informal aspects of education
differences in educational provision, historically and cross-culturally
impact of educational experiences – school organisation, teacher attitudes and
national political decisions – upon the individual and social groups
development of subcultures in the school environment and their impact upon
educational performance
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Work





definitions of work
individual’s experience of work and the different values placed upon work as an
activity by different social groups
impact of work on other life spheres, attitudes and behaviour
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Religion






definition of religion
relationship between beliefs and social values and norms
religion, social order and conflict
changing patterns of religious activity within and between societies
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Mass media






various forms of mass media and the process of mass communication
influence of the mass media in the creation of stereotypes
influence of the mass media in shaping values, attitudes and behaviour
bias in the media
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Scottish Further Education Unit
5
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
National Unit Specification: Statement of standards
Socialisation (Intermediate 2)
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards
set out in this part of the Unit specification. All sections of the statement of standards are
mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications
Authority.
Outcome 1
Describe the relative nature of social norms, values and roles using contrasting
cultures.
Performance criteria
(a)
(b)
(c)
Describe the sociological meanings of social norms, values and roles correctly.
Describe contrasting roles from the UK and other cultures correctly.
Describe social norms from the UK and contrasting cultures correctly.
Outcome 2
Describe the concept of socialisation.
Performance criteria
(a)
(b)
(c)
Describe the ‘nature versus nurture’ debate correctly.
Describe the process of primary and secondary socialisation correctly.
Describe the role of the main agents of socialisation in terms of their
contribution to the socialisation process correctly.
Outcome 3
Analyse the concept of socialisation.
Performance criteria
(a)
(b)
Compare the cultural relativity of social norms and values from the UK and
other contrasting cultures correctly.
Analyse the contribution of socialisation to the maintenance of social order
clearly.
Evidence requirements for the Unit
The following requirements are mandatory for this Unit.
Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance
Criteria of the Unit for it to be achieved. The assessment should take the form of an
unseen, closed-book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It
should be taken on a single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the
form of restricted response questions, and should make use of stimulus material as a tool
with which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed.
Scottish Further Education Unit
6
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Introduction to socialisation
Socialisation is a key concept in sociology because it accounts for the diversity of socially
acquired behaviour and it demonstrates the ways in which the culture of a society is
internalised by individuals through the socialisation processes and agencies.
The relative nature of social norms, values and roles
Areas discussed at this point should include the following:







the nature versus nurture debate
structural aspects of society that form its culture and influence human behaviour
comparison of three cultures from cross-cultural, sub-cultural, anthropological or
historical examples
cultural variation within and between societies
social norms and roles relating to gender, age, family/marriage, religion, work and
education
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
The six main agents of socialisation
All of the six main agents of socialisation should be covered in learning and teaching, but
only two require to be assessed for Unit assessment purposes.
The family






nature of the family and the variety of forms it can take within and between societies
changing nature of roles within the family
family as an agency of social control
changing patterns of family life
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Peer groups





nature of peer groups
influence of peer groups in shaping values, attitudes and behaviour
relationship between peer groups and other agents of socialisation
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Scottish Further Education Unit
7
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Education






formal and informal aspects of education
differences in educational provision, historically and cross-culturally
impact of educational experiences – school organisation, teacher attitudes and
national political decisions – upon the individual and social groups
development of subcultures in the school environment and their impact upon
educational performance
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Work





definitions of work
individual’s experience of work and the different values placed upon work as an
activity by different social groups
impact of work on other life spheres, attitudes and behaviour
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Religion






definition of religion
relationship between beliefs and social values and norms
religion, social order and conflict
changing patterns of religious activity within and between societies
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Mass media






various forms of mass media and the process of mass communication
influence of the mass media in the creation of stereotypes
influence of the mass media in shaping values, attitudes and behaviour
bias in the media
other relevant features may be used to supplement/supplant these features, providing
they are widely recognised as being sociologically appropriate
use of the United Kingdom as an example.
Scottish Further Education Unit
8
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Recommended reading
As with all elements of this pack, the resources suggested are offered as assistance and
are not seen to be a definitive resource list. Lecturers/teachers are free to use books,
CD-ROMs, videos, web sites, existing resources, etc., at their own discretion. A good tip
for finding good quality, credible web sites is to discuss with colleagues which ones they
have found useful, to use links attached to Sociology departments in Universities, the
Association for the Teaching of the Social Sciences (ATSS), SFEU or LTS, and to use
those recommended within textbooks. Students/pupils may also offer suggestions, which
you can check out to make sure:
1.
2.
They are of good quality, and
Students/pupils have not copied homework directly from a site.
Suggested reading





Blundell. (2001) Active Sociology for GCSE. Longman.
Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman and Heald. (1996) Sociology: A New Approach. 3rd
edition. Causeway Press.
Moore. (2001) Sociology Alive. 3rd edition. Nelson Thornes.
Muncie. (1999) Understanding the Family. Sage Publications Ltd.
Wilson and Kidd. (1998) Sociology for GCSE. Collins Educational.
Useful websites




www.s-cool.co.uk
http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/index.htm
http://www.sociology.org.uk
http://www.sociologyonline.co.uk
SQA contacts
The SQA website is a valuable source of information www.sqa.org.uk
on all aspects of the unit – Course and Unit specifications; Specimen
Question Papers; Marking Instructions; Principal Assessor reports;
Senior Moderator reports and Subject Review updates.
Qualifications
Manager
Qualifications
Officer
Scottish Further Education Unit
Tom
Stannage
Jacqueline
McKenzie
[email protected]
[email protected]
9
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Approaches to learning and teaching
The learning experience at this level should be varied to encourage enthusiasm for the
subject and to stimulate and prepare candidates for independent study.
As Socialisation (Intermediate 1) and Socialisation (Intermediate 2) have the same
content, it follows that in a bi-level class, while candidates will cover the same content,
they will not be expected to master it in the same way. In other words, the same depth of
knowledge and understanding or the same level of skills development will not be
expected.
The Unit should be approached using a wide range of stimulus materials and teaching
approaches. Candidates should be encouraged to draw upon their own experiences,
where appropriate, and should have access to resources such as audio-visual material,
invited speakers, Internet, ICT and paper-based resources. Where appropriate, the
material should be kept up-to-date and relevant to the Unit, the level of study and
interests of the candidates. For Intermediate 1 it is recognised that the concepts and
explanations covered in the Unit should be approached in a descriptive way. The material
for Intermediate 1 in this support pack has been presented in the form of bullet points in
an attempt to reflect the depth of knowledge and understanding required at this level. For
Intermediate 2, it is recognised that the concepts and explanations covered in the Unit
should be approached in a largely descriptive way, though some analytical understanding
of the value and limitations of the concepts and explanations should be introduced. The
material for Intermediate 2 has been presented by conjoined text, as the candidate is
required to demonstrate a deeper level of knowledge and understanding at this level.
The emphasis throughout should be on interactive learning, whether through whole class,
small group, or individual activity. The Units can also be adapted for flexible delivery,
including paper-based open learning and various modes of online delivery.
Presentation of the sequence of Units is at the discretion of centres.
There are three possible approaches to the delivery of the Units at Intermediate 2:
1.
If presenting along with the other two Intermediate 2 Units and being used for
progression to or fallback from Intermediate 1, this Unit may be presented after both
the Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 2) and
Social Stratification (Intermediate 2) Units. This approach would also allow for
movement between Intermediate 2 and Intermediate 1 in the first few months of the
course. As the Intermediate 2 Socialisation Unit and the Intermediate 1 Unit of the
same title have overlapping content, it is envisaged that assessors will seek to
determine that candidates continue to be presented for the Course at Intermediate 2
or undertake the free standing Intermediate 1 Units.
2.
An alternative model for presentation, one that may introduce candidates to the
discipline of sociology more lightly, may be to begin with this Unit, then present
Social Stratification (Intermediate 2), before presenting the conceptually more
complex content of Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unit
(Intermediate 2). This model would also allow for progression and fallback between
Intermediate 2 and Intermediate 1.
Scottish Further Education Unit
10
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
3.
For the purposes of progression to or fallback from Higher and Intermediate 2 in the
first few months of the Course, the following model may be adopted. As the
Intermediate 2 Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unit and the
Higher Unit of the same title have overlapping content, it is envisaged that
assessors will seek to determine that candidates continue with the Course at the
appropriate level. Due to the level of demand at Higher, bi-level delivery of
Intermediate 2 and Higher for the Unit would be problematic. Beyond the common
elements between the Intermediate 2 and Higher Understanding Human Society:
The Sociological Approach Units, the Course Content is substantially different.
Scottish Further Education Unit
11
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
What is sociology?
(Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Sociology is the systematic study of societies. It looks at how people live, behave and
work together in groups. It asks questions about the world that we live in and tries to
explain why it is the way it is. It is concerned with the study of social institutions. These
are the organised social arrangements which are found in all societies. For example, the
family is concerned with primary socialisation and arrangements of marriage, such as:
at what age people can marry, whom they can marry and how many partners they can
have. Why is the family constructed the way it is? The education system establishes
ways of transmitting knowledge, skills, values and attitudes from one generation to the
next. Why do some groups do better in education than others? What influence does
religion have on our lives? Who benefits from politics? Why do some people commit
more crime than others? Do the mass media educate audiences or indoctrinate them?
What values do we place on work? How do our peer groups shape our values, attitudes
and behaviour?
Sociology teaches you to question the world around you. Sociology graduates go on to a
hugely diverse range of careers. They have jobs in the media as researchers and
journalists. Graduates may embark on teaching, lecturing, police work, social work or
health care. The list is endless.
Scottish Further Education Unit
12
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
What is sociology?
 The systematic study of
societies
 The study of social institutions:
- family
- peer groups
- education
- work
- religion
- mass media.
Scottish Further Education Unit
13
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Tutor notes
This support pack begins with the ‘nature versus nurture’ debate and the concept of
‘socialisation’, even though these are covered in Outcome 2 of the Unit specification. The
writer felt it was logical to approach the topics in this order, as it will introduce the student
to some of the key concepts that sociologists use to understand human behaviour.
Socialisation is a key concept in sociology because it accounts for the diversity of socially
acquired behaviour and it demonstrates the ways in which the culture of a society is
internalised by individuals through socialisation processes and agencies.
By first of all studying how human beings learn to behave, the student will be in a better
position to explore contrasting cultures in Outcome 1.

In this Introduction to the ‘nature versus nurture’ debate and the concept of
‘socialisation’, students may be encouraged to consider the similarities between
themselves and their siblings, for example, in terms of appearance and behaviour.

The tutor could facilitate a discussion on the differences between behaviours in
different families and/or on gender differences.

DVDs of feral children such as ‘Genie’ could be shown to stimulate interest.
Scottish Further Education Unit
14
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Nature versus nurture (Intermediate 1)
Introduction


This debate is very important to the study of sociology and socialisation. This is
because sociologists are trying to explain social behaviour in humans.
The debate focuses on whether our behaviour is determined by our genes or by
the society and culture in which live.
Nature





When sociologists talk about nature they are referring to what a person inherits
through their genes.
Each individual inherits 50% of their genes from her/his mother and 50% from
his/her father.
Genes determine such things as what sex we will be and the colour of our eyes.
Biologists have also argued that genetic influence can explain social behaviour.
For example, some have argued that aggression or male and female behaviour
are inherited.
If we use the term instinct we mean that behaviour is passed on through the
genes from parents to children.
Nurture




When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the social behaviours
we learn through the socialisation process.
This means the things we do are a result of what we have learned.
This means that our experiences and our environment play a large part in
shaping our behaviour.
Our social behaviours come from the expectations and guidelines found within
each society or culture.
Scottish Further Education Unit
15
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Nature or nurture?
There are four main areas to consider when trying to answer the question – ‘which has
most influence in shaping social behaviour?’
1


2


3


4



We often say behaviour is natural or instinctive because we do things without
thinking, or have done this for such a long time it seems natural.
However, what we consider natural may in fact be behaviour that is learned,
but because we are socialised from an early age it seems natural.
Recent research into genetics has made a strong case for the nature
argument.
However, there are huge variations in social behaviour between different
cultures that cannot be explained by genetic inheritance.
Sociologists admit that we have basic drives for food, shelter, comfort, and so
on, but this does not explain the way we go about getting these things.
Each society/culture does things in different ways. This is because we are
socialised into accepting and demonstrating the behaviours that are seen as
important and normal in our society.
Biologists also acknowledge that the environment is important.
We may inherit the gene for a physical characteristic or a specific behaviour
but the gene may only express itself in a particular environment.
One example of this is if we look at the genetic influence on height. We may
inherit the gene for tallness, but we would need protein in our diet for the gene
to express itself and actually make us tall.
One way to test the influence of nature or nurture would be to study the ways in which
people develop without human/social contact. However, researchers cannot do this as it
would not be ethical. However, there are some case studies of wild children who seem to
have gone without social contact.
Scottish Further Education Unit
16
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Nature versus nurture (Intermediate 2)
Introduction
Sociology is the study of human behaviour and therefore the source of human behaviour
is of interest to sociologists. Many people just accept the way the world is because they
think it is natural. They think it is natural for two people to fall in love, get married, live
together and have children. It is natural for children to go to school, sit at desks and obey
the teacher. It is natural to then go to work and take orders from the manager.
Institutions like the family and school are so ingrained in our society that we may just
accept them and not try to understand how they have come to be or why they work the
way they do. It can be easy to think that they have always been there and cannot be
changed.
Sociologists, however, challenge these taken-for-granted assumptions. They do this
by investigating how things were in the past, how they have changed, how they differ
between societies and how they might change in the future.
The first thing we need to investigate is whether social behaviour is determined by our
genes or by the society and culture in which we live. This is known as the nature
versus nurture debate. This debate is central to the study of sociology and
socialisation. Before we look at the debate in detail it is important to define what we
mean by the terms nature and nurture.
Nature
When sociologists talk about nature they are referring to what a person inherits through
their genes. This is the genetic inheritance of a person. Each individual inherits 50% of
their genes from their mother and 50% from their father. Genes determine such things as
what sex you will be and the colour of your eyes.
However, biologists have argued that genetic influence can also explain social behaviour
and characteristics. For example, some have argued that aggression, personality and
intelligence are all inherited. If we use the term, instinct, this means that behaviour is
programmed in the genes.
Nurture
When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the behaviours we learn
through the socialisation process. The things we do are a result of what we have
learned. This means that our experiences and our environment play a large part in
shaping our behaviour. Our social behaviours come from the expectations and guidelines
found within each society and culture.
Scottish Further Education Unit
17
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Nature or nurture
It can be difficult to know how much we are influenced by our genes and how much by
our environment. We often say behaviour is natural or instinctive because we often do
things without thinking, or have done something for such a long time that it seems
natural. However, what we consider natural may in fact be behaviour that is learned but,
because we are socialised from an early age, it seems natural.
Recent advances in science in the area of genetics have made a strong case for the
nature argument. However, sociologists still argue that genetics alone cannot explain the
huge variations in social behaviour between different cultures.
Sociologists acknowledge that we have basic drives for food, shelter, comfort, and so
on, but this does not explain the way we go about getting these things. Each society
does things in different ways and this can be seen as the influence on the way we have
been socialised and the behaviours that are seen as important and normal in our
society.
Biologists, on the other hand, also acknowledge that the environment is important. For
example, we may inherit the gene for a physical characteristic or a specific behaviour, but
the gene may only express itself in a particular environment.
One example of this is if we look at the genetic influence on height. We may inherit the
gene for tallness, but we would need protein in our diet as we are growing up for the gene
to express itself and actually make us tall. So, even though we may have the possibility
of behaving in a particular way, this is not determined just by biology.
One way to test the influence of nature or nurture would be to study the way in which
people develop without human/social contact. However, researchers cannot do this as it
would not be ethical. However, there are some case studies on wild children who seem
to have gone without social contact that we will have a look at a little later in this Unit.
For the most part we need to look at examples of behaviour in our own society with
people who have been brought up with social contact and try to decide how far the
behaviour is as a result of their genetic inheritance and in how far it is because they
have learned it as part of the socialisation process. That is, whether they behave the
way they do because of their genes, which they have inherited from their parents, or
because of the way they were treated when they were young.
Scottish Further Education Unit
18
Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Examples of the nature versus nurture debate (Intermediate 1 and
Intermediate 2)
Given below are examples of different kinds of social behaviour. Each can be explained
through nature or nurture.
Female and male behaviour
Most of us would agree that in many situations we expect male and female behaviour to
differ. Consider the following questions designed to test whether males and females
behave differently:

In your experience, is a man or a woman more likely to cry at a sad film?

Is a firefighter more likely to be a man or a woman?

Is a man or a woman more likely to wear make-up?

When a heterosexual couple are in a car together, is the man or the woman more
likely to be driving?
The nature versus nurture debate considers whether such behavioural differences are
genetic or learned.
The nature side of the debate emphasises that males and females do have genetic
differences that influence both physical and behavioural characteristics. These
biological differences mean that males and females are, therefore, suited to different
behaviours and roles. Some people who adhere to this side of the debate have argued
that biological differences make females more suited to raising children.
The nurture side of the debate emphasises that there is a whole range of social
institutions (work, family, religion, mass media, education) that teach children their
gender roles. Within the family males and females are treated differently from the
moment they are born. Baby boys are often dressed in blue and baby girls in pink. When
talking to a young child people often refer to the girl’s prettiness and clothing, while they
refer to a boy’s size and mischievousness. Adults tend to speak to girls in a softer, more
nurturing voice. Boys are given more active and technical toys that encourage
competitiveness while girls’ toys are more passive. Teachers as well as carers also
expect boys and girls to behave differently. It is perceived to be less acceptable for girls
to be fighting in the playground than it is for boys. Teenage boys achieve status among
their peer group for sexual promiscuity while teenage girls are condemned for the same
behaviour. In adulthood, the media judge women on their appearance, while they judge
men on their power and success. Why does this happen?
Scottish Further Education Unit
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Sociology: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Aggression
The source of aggression may be either innate or environmental.
The nature side of the debate argues that aggression is passed on through the genes. It
emphasises that biological factors such as hormones play a part. For example, males
are more aggressive than females because of higher testosterone levels. Aggression
also may have been necessary for survival as humans were evolving, as part of the
evolutionary process.
On the nurture side of the debate, it is pointed out that aggression is not found in every
society, therefore it is not natural. There are varying degrees of aggression between
and within different cultures. Children who have aggressive role models (such as
parents, friends and/or celebrities) are more likely to become aggressive as they learn
through observation and imitation, eg. if a popular singer demonstrates aggressive
behaviour and is rewarded with fame, popularity and wealth then children may adopt
similar behaviour.
Criminal behaviour
Criminal behaviour, it is argued, may be either inherited or learned.
On the nature side of the debate, it is argued that it is part of the genetic make up of the
criminal. There was a case in the United States where genetic arguments were used in
the defence of someone accused of murder. Brain size and other physical features have
been associated with the criminal personality. Hormone imbalance has also been given
as a reason for criminal behaviour.
On the nurture side of the debate, it is argued that we learn criminal behaviour from our
society. It could be from adults who are copied. It could be part of peer group pressure
or rebellion against society. Society values material goods and if people cannot get them
in legal ways then they will use illegal ways to obtain them in order to achieve status.
Achievement in school
Girls are obtaining more qualifications than boys. Middle-class children leave school with
more qualifications than working-class children. Are these differences genetic or
learned?
The nature side of the debate argues that intelligence is inherited, that it is your genes
that determine your IQ (intelligence quotient). Your IQ determines what you can achieve
and if you have a low IQ you will only be able to do certain things and not others. Parents
pass on their genetic advantage to their offspring.
Those who support the nurture side of the debate reject the idea that intelligence is
inherited. They would argue that someone's IQ simply shows how good a person is at
doing IQ tests and says nothing about the person's actual intelligence. They would argue
that a person with a low IQ may not have been exposed to a stimulating environment
where they could learn. Some school pupils fail because of social factors such as
poverty, expectations of teachers or discrimination. Also, boys may gain more status
from peers by failing rather than succeeding.
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Tutor Guide: Student activities on nature versus nurture
In the Student Activities on ‘nature versus nurture’ the students are invited to complete
boxes with appropriate statements. The tutor may use her/his discretion whether or not
to provide one statement as an example.
Nature versus Nurture (Intermediate 1)
For example:
Two statements that support the nature side of the debate are:
1 Humans have basic drives that are determined by their genes.
2
Two statements that support the nurture side of the debate are:
1 There are many differences in social behaviours between societies and cultures.
2
Aggressive behaviour
Nature
1 Due to higher levels of testosterone boys are more aggressive than
girls.
.
2
Nurture
1 Little boys are encouraged to play more aggressive games than little
girls.
2
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Nature versus nurture (Intermediate 2)
Nature
1 Inherited characteristics or behaviour that comes through our genes.
2
Nurture
1 Social behaviour learned through our experience.
2
Male/female behaviour
Nature
1 Women are naturally more caring than men so should be responsible
for looking after children and elderly relatives.
2
Nurture
1 Girls are more likely to cry at sad films because little boys are taught
that ‘boys don’t cry’.
2
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Criminal behaviour
Nature
1 People living in underprivileged areas are born with a criminal gene.
2
Nurture
1 Crime rates are higher in underprivileged areas because of a lack of
opportunities and biased policing.
2
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Student Activity: Nature versus nurture (Intermediate 1)
Which of the following statements describes nature and which nurture?
correct answer in the boxes.

Behaviour which is learned.

Behaviour which is the result of genes.
Write the
Nature
Nurture
Below are four statements. Two statements support the nature side of the debate and
two statements support the nurture side of the debate. Choose the correct statements
below and write them in the spaces provided.

Humans have basic drives that are determined by their genes.

There are many differences in social behaviour between societies and cultures.

Social behaviour comes from what a society sees as important and normal.

Genes determines such things as eye colour and what sex a person will be. It can
also influence social behaviour.
Two statements that support the nature side of the debate are:
1
2
Two statements that support the nurture side of the debate are:
1
2
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Is aggression determined by nature or nurture? Write down two statements that support
the nature side of the debate and two that support the nurture side of the debate.
Aggressive behaviour
Nature
1
2
Nurture
1
2
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Student Activity: Nature versus nurture (Intermediate 2)
Read the four statements below. Only one accurately describes nature and one
describes nurture. Select which of the statements below are correct and write these in
the boxes provided.

Behaviour we do without thinking.

Social behaviour learned through our experience.

Behaviour that we do with others.

Inherited characteristics or behaviour that comes through our genes.
Nature
1
2
Nurture
1
2
In the boxes provided below, write two statements that support the nature side of the
debate and two statements that support the nurture side of the debate.
Two statements that support the nature side of the debate are:
1
2
Two statements that support the nurture side of the debate are:
1
2
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Consider male/female behaviour and criminal behaviour. Write down two statements
that support the nature side of the debate and two that support the nurture side of the
debate for each of these behaviours.
Male/female behaviour
Nature
1
2
Nurture
1
2
Criminal behaviour
Nature
1
2
Nurture
1
2
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Nature versus Nurture
Nature:
 behaviour is instinctive
Nurture:
 behaviour is learned
Nature:
 genetics determine behaviour
Nurture:
 environmental factors
determine behaviour
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Socialisation (Intermediate 1)
What is socialisation?



Socialisation is the way in which we learn the social aspects of behaviour.
It includes the way we think and behave.
Socialisation is life long. It starts at birth and continues until death.
What do we learn in the socialisation process?


We learn the culture of our society. This includes: beliefs, dress and language.
Sociologists use technical words to describe the things we learn. Some words
you might come across in your studies are: social norms, values and roles.
Different types of socialisation
There are also different types of socialisation. Again, sociologists have technical words to
describe these different types of socialisation.
Primary socialisation



Socialisation begins as soon as you are born.
The people who have the most influence in the first few years of your life are
your immediate family and carers.
The socialisation that goes on at this time is known as primary socialisation.
Secondary socialisation



As the child starts to grow up they are influenced by people who are not their
immediate carers.
When a child is about five they go to school, they may join social clubs, or take
up dancing or a sport.
The socialisation that goes on outside the immediate family is known as
secondary socialisation.
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Formal socialisation



Some of our learning take place in a particular way. For example, we learn the
skills of reading, writing and counting in school.
These types of skills are seen as necessary in our society because they help us
communicate and get a job.
This type of socialisation is known as formal socialisation.
Informal socialisation


Many of the things we learn are picked up from copying others, listening to
things we are told by our friends or through the media.
This type of socialisation is going on all the time and is known as informal
socialisation.
Is the process the same for everyone?

There are differences in socialisation between societies.

There are also differences between different groups within societies.

This may be because of different beliefs such as religion or may be based on
differences in gender. For example, it may be that men and women are
socialised differently to prepare them for roles in later life.
Importance of the socialisation process




Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep social
order.
Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to find a
way to live together without constant fighting. Also, large societies cannot rely
on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure people obey
the rules.
The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see
what happens if these rules are broken.
All sociologists see socialisation as very important. They disagree on whether
it benefits everyone in society or whether it gives some groups more
advantages than others.
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Socialisation (Intermediate 2)
What is socialisation?
Socialisation is the way in which we learn the appropriate behaviour of our society. It
includes the way we think and behave. Socialisation is a process that goes on
throughout our lives – from birth to death. We learn the culture of our society. By culture
we mean all the ways of behaving, dressing, speaking and thinking. Sociologists use
technical words such as values, social norms and roles to describe the things we learn.
There are different types of socialisation.
Socialisation begins as soon as we are born and the people who have the most influence
in the first few years of our life are our immediate family and carers. The socialisation that
goes on at this time is known as primary socialisation. This refers to early childhood
learning during which we acquire the basic behaviour patterns, language and skills that
we will need in later life. The agents of primary socialisation are usually family and
friends. They ensure that the child gradually learns the behaviour appropriate for its
society and gender.
As the child starts to grow up people who are not their immediate carers influence them.
So, when a child is about three they may go to nursery and then start school at five, they
may join social clubs, or take up dancing or a sport. The socialisation that occurs outside
the immediate family during later childhood and adulthood is known as secondary
socialisation. The agents of secondary socialisation include the peer group, the media,
religion, the school and the workplace. They teach individuals society’s norms and
values.
Some of our learning takes place in a particular way. For example, we learn the skills of
reading, writing and counting in school. These types of skills are seen as necessary in
our society because they help us communicate and get a job. This type of socialisation is
known as formal socialisation.
However, lots of the things we learn are picked up from observing others and listening to
things we are told by our friends or through the media. This type of socialisation is going
on all the time and is known as informal socialisation.
Is the process the same for everyone?
The socialisation process means that people learn ways of behaving that society
considers normal or desirable but there are differences. For example, different societies
have different ways of behaving. In the UK, we formally greet people with a handshake,
but in Japan it is normal to bow. Most British people eat with a knife and fork, whereas
Japanese people are more likely to use chopsticks. Love marriages are considered
desirable in the UK and arranged marriages are preferred in Pakistan. Within large scale
societies there may also be variations in the way people are socialised. This may be
because of different beliefs such as religion or may be based on differences in sex. For
example, it may be that men and women are socialised differently to prepare them for
roles in later life.
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Importance of the socialisation process
One reason why sociologists consider socialisation so important is the way it helps to
keep social order. Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have
to find a way to live together without constant fighting. Also, large societies cannot rely
on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure people obey the rules.
The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see what the
consequences are if these rules are broken. All sociologists see socialisation as very
important. They disagree on whether this is done for the benefit of society as a whole or
whether it advantages some groups more than others.
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Tutor Guide: Student activities on socialisation
In the Student Activities on ‘socialisation’ the students are invited to complete boxes with
appropriate statements. The tutor may use her/his discretion whether or not to provide
one statement as an example.
Write down two things you have learned through formal socialisation.
a.
How to write my name.
b.
Write down two things you have learned through informal socialisation.
a.
How to make friends.
b.
Think of two examples of the way in which the way you have been socialised into UK
society/culture.
a.
I use a knife and fork when eating.
b.
Think of two examples where you think your own or others’ socialisation may have been
different from the rest of society because of family, religion, beliefs, and so on.
a.
My Muslim friend does not eat pork.
b.
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Think of two ways in which men and women may be socialised differently.
a.
Males
Females
Little boys are given active toys to
play with.
Little girls are given more passive toys to
play with.
b.
Behaviour that might be considered natural or animal:

Genie used the toilet where she liked.




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Behaviour that might be considered social:

Isabelle developed speech.




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Student Activity: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
1. Which of the statements below describes primary socialisation and which describes
secondary socialisation? Write your answer in the box provided.
This type of socialisation tends to happen as the child grows up
and involves others outwith the immediate family.
This type of socialisation takes place in the first few years of life
and involves immediate family and carers.
2. Write down two things you have learned through formal socialisation.
a.
b.
3. Write down two things you have learned through informal socialisation.
a.
b.
4. Think of two examples of the way in which the way you have been socialised into UK
society/culture.
a.
b.
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5. Think of two examples where you think your own or others’ socialisation may have
been different from the rest of society because of family, religion, beliefs, and so on.
a.
b.
6. Think of two ways in which men and women may be socialised differently.
Males
Females
a.
b.
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Student Activity: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Wild children – case studies
One way of studying the process of socialisation is to look at a number of cases of ‘wild
children’. These are children who, for one reason or another, have been deprived of
normal human contact. The following examples are taken from different sociological and
anthropological studies. They describe what the children were like when found and how
they developed after normal social contact.
Case study 1
Kamala and Amala

The case of Amala and Kamala was recorded in the 1920s in India. They were
found living ‘wild’ and were looked after by a minister and his wife who ran an
orphanage.

Amala was about two years old and Kamala was eight when they were found.
Amala died soon after she was found. Kamala lived until she was about
seventeen.

The children were reported to have had an acute sense of smell, would howl at
night and eat directly out of a bowl. Kamala was not toilet trained and hated
clothes.

Although they did play with one of the smaller children they ended up biting him
so he became afraid.

Kamala did form bonds of affection with the minister's wife and Kamala was
obedient and listened to what she said, although not to others.

Kamala also learned to speak, but only in a very limited way. She also learned
to walk and use her hands when eating.
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Case study 2
Shamdev



This boy was found in a forest in India when he was five years old.
When he was found he did not like people and preferred to play with the dogs.
He did not like the sun and preferred the shadows. At night he was restless
and they had to tie him up. He ate raw meat such as chickens.
He did develop his own sign language such as flapping his hands to mean
‘chicken’.
Case study 3
The wild boy of Aveyron



In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the South of
France. He did not appear to have any parents and was taken to an
orphanage. He was then put into the care of a doctor who wanted to study his
progress.
When he was first found he could not speak. He did make strange noises and
would howl in the dark. He hated wearing clothes, was not toilet trained and he
appeared not to feel cold or heat. He was observed to go out and play in the
snow with no clothes and apparently he did not suffer from this – in fact, he
seemed to enjoy it.
He lived until he was about forty years old. During this time he did learn some
words. He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and dress himself.
However, he never developed fully.
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Case study 4
Isabelle



Isabelle was born to a mother who could not speak or hear. She stayed with
her mother for the first six years of her life in a dark room.
When she was first found she was very fearful of strangers – in particular men.
She could not speak although she did make a ‘croaking sound’.
In time she did develop speech and other social behaviour.
Case study 5
Genie





Genie was found in 1970 when she was 13 years old. Her father had died and
her mother was almost totally blind. Social workers discovered she had spent
most of her life tied to a chair in one room. She had very little contact with
other members of the family. Genie was discouraged from making any sounds.
She had not been fed properly and could not stand up straight.
Genie could not talk. She did not understand language. She used the toilet
where she liked and hit and scratched herself. She often used touch and smell
to find out about objects. She could not walk properly when she was found but
developed this through time.
Although she did learn some words, she never learned to speak fully. She
found grammar difficult although she had words for colours and shapes which
surprised her carers. She did learn social habits and appeared to form
affectionate bonds with her carers.
She is still alive but her development is unknown.
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Read the above case studies on the wild children. Think about the types of things they
did. Write a few statements in the boxes below on the different types of behaviour that
were reported.
Behaviour that might be considered natural or animal:





Behaviour that might be considered social:





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



Think about the things you studied in the nature versus nurture debate and in the
study of socialisation.
Think about the case studies of the wild children.
Think about the way they behaved when they were found and why that behaviour
changed.
Write down two reasons why you think the children behaved the way they did, eg.
why did Kamala eat directly out of a bowl? Why did Shamdev prefer to eat raw meat?
Why did Genie use touch and smell to find out about objects?
1
2
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Socialisation
 Socialisation is the process of
learning the acceptable/
expected behaviour of our
society
 Primary socialisation: early
childhood learning
 Secondary socialisation:
learning that occurs outside
the immediate family
 Formal socialisation: learning
in a structured way, eg. in the
classroom; in church; in
training sessions at work
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 Informal socialisation: learning
in an unstructured way, eg.
watching TV; talking to friends
 Socialisation contributes to
the maintenance of social
order but may stifle
individuality
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Social norms, values and roles
Social norms (Intermediate 1)
Definition of social norms


Sociologists use this term to describe forms of behaviour that are commonly
found in a society or culture.
It can be actual behaviour or expected behaviour.
Examples
Examples of social norms in UK society include:

eating with a knife or fork

calling our parents mother and father

paying for our food and clothing with money

going out to work to earn money.
Formal and informal


The social norms in a society/culture may be informal. This means they are
accepted ways of thinking and behaving, but may not be written down
anywhere.
However, there are times when social norms become more formal and a
society might make them part of the law found in that society.
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Breaking social norms




Most societies disapprove of people who break social norms. Behaviour which
goes against the norms of society is known as deviant behaviour.
In some cases deviant behaviour may be punished in a formal way, such as
being fined or put in prison.
In other cases people who break social norms are rejected by those around
them, such as people refusing to speak to them.
Sometimes people just think some social behaviour is odd, but they do not try
to stop a person behaving in a particular way. For example, at one time people
who were vegetarians seemed odd because most people ate meat. Nowadays,
more and more people are vegetarian and it no longer seems odd.
Social norms and socialisation



The socialisation process is the way we learn the social norms of our society.
Social norms are passed on to us by our parents, grandparents, other family,
carers, teachers, club leaders, friends, priests, etc.
Other ways include what we read and see in newspapers, on television and in
films.
Different social norms



In small-scale societies social norms might be the same for everyone.
In large-scale societies some social norms may be different for different
groups.
In a large-scale society different groups might have different beliefs and
practices. The social norms for one group may not be the same as another.
This could include the way we dress, what we eat and whom we can marry.
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Social norms (Intermediate 2)
A social norm is a rule that a group uses to define acceptable and correct behaviour.
Examples of social norms in UK society include eating with a knife or fork, calling our
parents mother and father, queuing in a supermarket, saying ‘please’ and ‘thank you’,
paying for our food rather than hunting and gathering, paying for our clothing with money
rather than making it and going out to work to earn that money.
The social norms in a society/culture may be informal. That is, they are accepted ways
of thinking and behaving but may not be formally written down anywhere. However, there
are times when social norms become more formal and a society might make them part of
the laws found in that society, eg. it is illegal to take goods from a shop without paying.
Most societies disapprove of people who break social norms. Behaviour that goes
against the social norms of society is known as deviant behaviour. In some cases,
deviant behaviour may be punished in a formal way, such as being fined or put in jail, eg.
displaying cruelty towards animals. However, not all deviant behaviour is illegal, eg.
laughing at a funeral. Also, not all illegal behaviour is deviant, eg. driving at 75 mph on
the motorway.
Conformity to norms can be achieved through negative social sanctions (informal
rules), the most feared of which are exclusion from the group, a feeling of
embarrassment, being laughed at or gossiped about. Other people’s disapproval stops
us from skipping queues in the post office or licking our plates in restaurants. Positive
sanctions can also persuade people to abide by social norms. These may include prizes
at school, a promotion at work, or popularity among peers.
Sometimes people just think some social behaviour is odd, but they do not try to stop a
person behaving in a particular way. For example, at one time people who were
vegetarians seemed odd because most people ate meat. Nowadays, more and more
people are vegetarian and it no longer seems odd.
The socialisation process is the way we learn the social norms of our society. These
are passed on to us by our parents, grandparents, other family, carers, teachers, club
leaders, friends, priests and in other ways, such as what we see in the newspapers,
television and films.
In small-scale societies, social norms might be the same for everyone, but in large scale
societies different groups might have different beliefs and practices. The social norms for
one group may not be the same as another. This could include the way we dress, what
we eat and whom we can marry.
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Values (Intermediate 1)
Definition of values


Values are the general guidelines that underpin the social norms.
Values are the things that people value and think are important in a society.
Examples of values
Values include things such as:

justice

co-operation

competition

getting to the top

democracy

loyalty

being wealthy

kindness.
Does everyone have the same values?


Some sociologists think that shared values are the cement of society and keep
it together.
However, do all people in a society share the same values? For example, do
rich people and poor people have the same values? Do people in the north of
Britain have the same values as those in the south? Do men and women share
the same values? What about young people and older people – do they share
the same values?
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
So, talking about the values of a society might be difficult. Yet there probably
are some identifiable values that are associated with each society. For
example, some people have suggested that co-operation and a sense of
community is part of Scottish culture. On the other hand, these values may be
found in other working class communities, such as the North of England or
Northern Ireland.
Values and social norms



Values are important in setting the guidelines for social norms.
If something is important in society then members of that society will behave in
a way that reflects the things that are valued.
Values may change and if this happens social norms will also change.
Examples of values and social norms




Values can influence the way we behave.
If competition is a value then it is acceptable to destroy your opponent to get
what you want.
If co-operation is a value then you would expect people to share.
Some people have suggested that the values in the UK changed in the 1980s
and 1990s. Before this time there was an apparent spirit of co-operation, but
the 1980s and 1990s saw a rise in a ‘me first’ attitude.
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Values and socialisation


The socialisation process is very important in learning the values of society.
We learn the values of society through the influence of our parents, family,
teachers, religion, mass media and so on.
Values and social order


Some would say that passing on values to each new generation is the most
important aspect of keeping a society together.
Others say that values are one way of making sure the most powerful groups in
society keep control of that society. In this view not everyone shares the same
values.
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Values (Intermediate 2)
Values are ideas and beliefs about what is right and wrong. They provide guidelines
for general behaviour. They are less specific than norms. In the UK, shared values
include privacy, honesty, loyalty, justice, competition, kindness, wealth, respect for human
life and private property. Most people in British society believe that these things are
important and worthwhile. Failure to stick to values can often result in formal
punishment. Laws against murder, for example, enforce the value attached to human
life. Laws against perjury and theft reflect the values of honesty and respect for private
property.
Some sociologists think that shared values are the cement of society and give it a sense
of unity.
However, one difficulty with this view is: do we think all people in a society share the
same values? For example, do rich people and poor people have the same values? Do
people in the north of Britain have the same values as those in the south? What about
those who live in the city and those who live in the country? Do men and women share
the same values? What about young people and older people – do they share the same
values? Do Muslims and Christians in the UK have the same values? Do employers and
employees have a value consensus? Do Conservative voters and Labour voters agree
on values?
So, talking about the values of a society might be difficult. Yet there probably are some
identifiable values that are associated with each society. For example, some people have
suggested that co-operation and a sense of community is part of Scottish culture. On the
other hand, these values may be found in other working class communities, such as the
North of England or Northern Ireland.
Values are important in setting the guidelines for behaviour – the social norms – of
society. If something is important in society then members of that society will behave in a
way that reflects the things that are valued. Values underpin norms, eg. the general
practice of knocking on a door before entering reflects the value of privacy. Values may
change, and if this happens, social norms will also change. Within UK society, we value
diversity and tolerance of other cultures, therefore discriminatory behaviour is not
accepted.
One way of demonstrating how values can influence the way we behave is comparing
competition and co-operation. If competition is a value then it might be considered
acceptable to destroy your opponent to get what you want, though competition as a value
does not extend to such behaviour. (Some British schools have banned Sports’ Day on
the premise that competition is a negative value to hold). If co-operation is a value then
you would expect people to share. Some people have suggested that the values in the
UK changed in the 1980s and 1990s. Before this time there was an apparent spirit of cooperation, but the 1980s and 1990s saw the development of a ‘me first’ attitude.
The socialisation process is very important in learning the values of society. We learn the
values of society through the influence of our parents, family, teachers, religion, mass
media and so on.
Some would say that passing on values to each new generation is the most important
aspect of keeping a society together, or perpetuating the culture. However, some
sociologists have argued that certain values are put forward because one group is more
powerful than another and this makes sure their ideas and ways of behaving are
followed. So, although there may be order in society, everyone does not necessarily
agree with, or gain advantage from, the values that are followed.
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Social roles (Intermediate 1)
Definition


A social role is a position a person holds in society. Each role has expectations
and behaviours associated with it.
For example, if you have the role of ‘friend’, you are expected to give support,
go on social outings and listen to the things your ‘friends’ have to tell you.
Aspects of social roles
All social roles involve:

what we do

the way we act

the way we interact

obligations

rights

duties and responsibilities

the way we see ourselves

the way others see us.
Changes in social roles
Social roles change and increase as we go through life. For example:
 From the moment you are born you are a child, but also a brother/sister,
son/daughter, a grandchild, a niece/nephew.

As you grow up you take on other roles. For example, you become a school
pupil or a friend. You may become a Cub Scout or a Brownie, or you may
become a team member if you belong to a swimming or football club.

As you get older your roles continue to change and develop. For example, as
you become an adolescent or teenager you may become a boyfriend or
girlfriend.
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
When you leave school, your roles change again. You may become a worker
or a college or university student. If you meet someone you want to live with in
a romantic relationship, you may become a partner, wife or husband.

As you move on through life more changes may occur. You may become an
aunt/uncle, mother/father and then grandfather/grandmother.
Social roles in different societies



Roles carry with them expected ways of behaving.
In different societies the same role may have different obligations, rights and/or
interactions.
For example, in Trobriander society, the person who has authority over the
children is the mother’s brother (uncle) rather than the father.
Social roles and others

The behaviour that is expected in a role is often in relation to another role. For
example, the role of a pupil or student is best understood in relation to a
teacher or lecturer.
Social roles and socialisation





We learn roles through the socialisation process.
This can be through playing, observing and practicing.
For example, when we are children we play at being a nurse or fireman.
We also observe adults so we learn how mothers, fathers and teachers
behave.
When we go to school, we learn how to respect authority and work when we
are told. This is a way of practicing for our role as worker in later life.
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Social roles and social order

Social roles are also important for social order in society. If we behave as
others expect then interactions with others becomes predictable.

Think about the roles of doctor and patient. If you go to the doctor you expect
him/her to listen to what is wrong with you and give you treatment. You would
not expect your doctor to lie down on the couch and start telling you his/her
troubles. In the same way, the doctor expects you to listen and follow the
treatment he/she recommends.
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Social roles (Intermediate 2)
A social role is a position a person holds in society that has certain expectations and
behaviours associated with it. For example, if you have the role of friend you are
expected to give support, go on social outings and listen to the things people have to tell
you.
There are different types of social roles including:

age and sex groupings, eg. infant, girl, boy, old man

family groupings, eg. daughter, father, aunt, grandfather

status groupings, eg. manager, union representative, chairperson

occupational groupings, eg. lawyer, doctor, shop assistant, teacher

common interest groupings, eg. gym member, pub local, member of pressure group.
All social roles involve such things as:

what we do

the way we act

the way we interact

obligations

rights

duties and responsibilities

the way we see ourselves

the way others see us.
Roles allow us to order our own behaviour and to predict the behaviour of others. We
know that when we get on a bus, we inform the driver where we want to go, pay the
appropriate amount of money and get taken there.
There is very little other
communication involved except perhaps for some comment on the weather or the state of
the traffic. We would not expect the driver to suggest going on a picnic instead of taking
you to college.
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Social roles change and increase as we go through life. For example:

From the time you are born you are a child, but also a brother/sister,
son/daughter, a grandchild, a niece/nephew.

As you grow up you take on other roles. For example, you become a school
pupil or a friend. You may become a Cub Scout or a Brownie, or you may
become a team member if you belong to a swimming or football club.

As you get older, your roles continue to change and develop. For example,
you become an adolescent or teenager and you may become a boyfriend or
girlfriend.

When you leave school, your roles change again. You may become a worker
or a college or university student. If you meet someone you want to live with in
a romantic relationship, you may become a partner, wife or husband.

As you move on through life more changes may occur. You may become an
aunt/uncle, mother/father and then grandfather/grandmother.
This shows us that each person has many social roles in life. Roles carry with them
specific expected ways of behaving. In different societies you may have people with the
same role but that role might have different obligations, rights and/or interactions in
each society. For example, in Trobriander society, the person who has authority over
the children is the mother’s brother (uncle) rather than the father.
The behaviour that is expected in a role is often in relation to another role. So, for
example, the role of a pupil or student is best understood in relation to a teacher or
lecturer.
Socialisation is the way we learn these social roles. This can be through playing,
observing and practicing. For example, when we are children we play at being a nurse or
firefighter. We also observe adults and so we learn how mothers, fathers and teachers
behave. When we go to school we also learn how to respect authority and work when we
are told. This is a way of practicing for our role as worker in later life.
Social roles are also important to social order in society. If we behave as others expect
then interaction with others becomes predictable and it takes away any uncertainty about
the way people might act.
For example, think about the roles of doctor and patient. If you go to the doctor you
expect him/her to listen to what is wrong with you, make a diagnosis, and give you some
form of treatment; you would not expect your doctor to lie down on the couch and start
telling you his/her troubles. In the same way, the doctor expects you to listen and follow
the treatment he/she recommends.
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Culture (Intermediate 1)
Definition of culture
When sociologists use the term, ‘culture’, they mean all the social aspects of a society.
This includes:

language

dress

traditions

beliefs

relationships

customs

history

norms

roles

values

knowledge

skills.
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What is UK culture?





It is sometimes easier to identify these social aspects of culture in small-scale
societies rather than in large-scale societies.
For example, think about the United Kingdom. How would you describe UK
culture?
Does everyone dress the same? Different ages and different ethnic groups
may dress differently.
What about language? Each area of the United Kingdom may have its own
dialect. For example, someone from Aberdeen may speak differently than
someone from Ayrshire. There are also several languages spoken in the
United Kingdom, eg. Gaelic is spoken by a small number of people in Scotland,
and about a quarter of the population of Wales speak Welsh as a first
language.
What about beliefs? Not everyone believes the same thing. Church
attendance has fallen among Christian religions and many people have beliefs
in other religions or ways of life.
Culture and socialisation


Our culture is passed on through the socialisation process. We are not born
with culture but into one, where we learn about all its aspects as we grow up.
In this way, the culture of a society is passed on from one generation to the
next.
Culture and social order

Having a shared culture can help keep society together because the members
of society have common beliefs, traditions, language and so on.
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Culture (Intermediate 2)
When sociologists use the term, ‘culture’, they are referring to the whole way of life of a
particular society. This includes:

language

dress

traditions

beliefs

relationships

customs

history

norms

roles

values

knowledge

skills.
Culture is not fixed around the world, but varies according to time (history) and place
(geography). Within any one society there may be a variety of subcultures or social
groups that differ from the dominant culture in terms of dress, norms, values and
language. Youth subcultures, such as hippies, mods, punks, Goths, skateboarders and
chavs have their own particular style of dress and music that distinguishes them from
others.
It is sometimes easier to identify these social aspects of culture in small-scale societies
rather than in large-scale societies. For example, think about the United Kingdom. How
would you describe UK culture? Does everyone dress the same? For example, different
ages and different ethnic groups may dress differently.
What about language? Each area of the United Kingdom may have its own dialect. For
example, someone from Aberdeen may speak differently than someone from Ayrshire.
Someone from Newcastle may speak differently from someone in Cambridge. There are
also several languages spoken in the United Kingdom, eg. Gaelic is spoken by a small
number of people in Scotland, and about a quarter of the population of Wales speak
Welsh as a first language.
What about beliefs? Not everyone believes the same thing. Church attendance has
fallen among Christian religions and many people have beliefs in other religions or ways
of life.
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Our culture is passed on through the socialisation process. We are not born with
culture, but learn about all its aspects as we grow up. In this way, the culture of a society
is passed on from one generation to the next.
Some sociologists have argued that having a common culture keeps society together as it
reinforces the shared aspects of a society.
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Tutor Guide: Student activities on social norms, values, roles and culture
In the Student Activities on ‘social norms, values and roles’ the students are invited to
complete boxes with appropriate statements. The tutor may use her/his discretion
whether or not to provide one statement as an example.
Description
Norms
Roles
Positions in society that
have expectations and ways
of behaving.
Values
Culture
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Example
Eating with a knife and fork.
Examples are justice,
equality, co-operation,
competition.
All the social aspects found
in a society.
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Student Activity: Socialisation (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Fit the following statements on the grid below into the correct boxes:

type of behaviour expected in a society

can be formal or informal

examples are justice, equality, co-operation, competition

addressing your parents as mother or father

it will influence interactions, responsibilities, rights

examples would include mother, brother, doctor, teacher, student, daughter, friend

examples would include language, dress, customs, history, beliefs and values

positions in society that have expectations and ways of behaving

it is passed on from one generation to the next

eating with a knife and fork

all the social aspects found in a society

these are the general guidelines that influence the social norms of a society.
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Description
Example
Norms
Roles
Values
Culture
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Tutor Guide: Student activity on cultural differences
The following article is a ‘spoof’ on the Nacirema which is an anagram of America. It is, in
fact, a study of American society focusing on dentistry and medicine, but described in
the way that anthropologists have often used to describe other cultures – giving them an
exotic feel.
It is an extremely useful piece of writing and can be used to make students think about
their own culture. However, it is a dense passage and can be difficult. It has been
reproduced here in its entirety but parts only could be used or read out to make it
accessible to particular groups of students.
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Student Activity: Cultural differences (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Read the following case study that was written for an anthropological journal and answer
the questions that follow.
Case study
Nacirema
Anthropologists have become so familiar with the diversity of ways of different peoples’
behaviour in similar situations they are not apt to be surprised by even the most exotic
customs. In fact, if all of the logically possible combinations of behaviour have not been
found somewhere in the world, anthropologists are bound to suspect that they must be
present in some yet undescribed tribe. In this light, the magical beliefs and practices of
the Nacirema present such unusual aspects that it seems desirable to describe them as
an example of the extremes to which human behaviour can go.
The Nacirema are a North American group living in the territory between the Canadian
Cree, the Yaqui and Tarahumare of Mexico, and the Carib and Arawak of the Antilles.
Little is known of their origin, although tradition states that they came from the east.
Nacirema culture is characterised by a highly developed market economy that has
evolved in a rich natural habitat. While much of the people’s time is devoted to economic
pursuits, a large part of the fruits of these labours and a considerable portion of the day
are spent in ritual activity. The focus of this activity is the human body, the appearance
and health of which is a dominant concern in the ethos of the people. While such a
concern is certainly not unusual, its ceremonial aspects and associated philosophy are
unique.
The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the human body
is ugly and that its natural tendency is to debility and disease. Incarcerated in such a
body, the Nacirema’s only hope is to avert these characteristics through the use of
powerful influences of ritual ceremony and every household has one or more shrines
devoted to this purpose. The rituals associated with the shrine are not family ceremonies
but are private and secret. The rites are normally only discussed with children and only
during the period when they are being initiated into these mysteries. I was able, however,
to establish sufficient rapport with the natives to examine these shrines and to have the
rituals described to me.
The focal point of the shrine is a box or chest which is built into the wall. In this chest are
kept many charms and magical potions without which no native believes he could live.
These preparations are secured from a variety of specialised practitioners. The most
powerful of these are the medicine men, whose assistance must be rewarded with
substantial gifts.
However, the medicine men do not provide the curative potions for their clients, but
decide what the ingredients should be and then write them down in an ancient and secret
language. This writing is only understood only by the medicine men and by the herbalists
who, for another gift, provide the required charm. The charm is not disposed of after it
has served its purpose, but is placed in the charm-box of the household shrine.
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Beneath the charm-box is a small font. Each day every member of the family, in
succession, enters the shrine room, bows his head before the charm-box, mingles
different sorts of holy water in the font and proceeds with a brief rite of ablution. The holy
waters are secured from the Water Temple of the community, where the priests conduct
elaborate ceremonies to make the liquid ritually pure.
In the hierarchy of magical practices, and below the medicine men in prestige, are
specialists whose designation is best translated ‘holy-mouth-men’. The Nacirema have
an almost pathological horror of and fascination with the mouth, the condition of which is
believed to have a supernatural influence on all social relationships. Were it not for the
rituals of the mouth, they believe their teeth would fall out, their gums bleed, their jaws
shrink, their friends desert them and their lovers reject them.
The daily body ritual performed by everyone includes a mouth-tie, but in addition, the
people seek out a holy-mouth-man twice a year. These practitioners have an impressive
set of paraphernalia, consisting of a variety of angers, awls, probes and prods. The
use of these objects in the exorcism of the evils of the mouth involves almost
unbelievable ritual torture of the client. The holy-mouth-man opens the client’s mouth
and, using the above mentioned tools, enlarges any holes that decay may have created
in the teeth. Magical materials are put into these holes. In the client’s view, the purpose
of these ministrations is to arrest decay and to draw friends. The extremely sacred and
traditional character of the rite is evident in the fact that the natives return to the holymouth-man year after year, despite the fact that their teeth continue to decay.
It is hoped that, when a thorough study of the Nacirema is made, there will be careful
inquiry into the personality structure of these people. One has but to watch the gleam in
the eye of the holy-mouth-man, as he jabs an awl into the exposed nerve, to suspect that
a certain amount of sadism is involved. If this can be established, a very interesting
pattern emerges, for most of the population shows definite masochistic tendencies. For
example, a portion of daily body ritual performed only by men involves scraping and
lacerating the surface of the face with a sharp instrument. Special women’s rites are
performed only four times during each lunar month, but what they lack in frequency is
made up in barbarity. As part of this ceremony, women bake their heads in small ovens
for about an hour. The theoretically interesting point is that what seems to be a
preponderantly masochistic people have developed sadistic specialists.
The medicine men have an imposing temple, or latipsoh, in every community of any size.
The more elaborate ceremonies required to treat very sick patients can only be performed
at this temple. These ceremonies involve not only the priests who perform miracles, but a
permanent group of vestal maidens who move sedately about the temple chambers in
distinctive costume and headdress.
The latipsoh ceremonies are so harsh that it is phenomenal that a fair proportion of the
really sick natives who enter that temple ever recover. Despite this fact, sick adults are
not only willing but eager to undergo the protracted ritual purification, if they can afford to
do so. No matter how ill the supplicant or how grave the emergency, the guardians of
many temples will not admit a client if he cannot give a rich gift to the custodian. Even
after one has gained admission and survived the ceremonies, the guardians will not
permit the neophyte to leave until he makes still another gift.
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The supplicant entering the temple is first stripped of all his or her clothes. Psychological
shock results from the fact that the body secrecy is suddenly lost upon entry to the
latipsoh. A man whose own wife has never seen him in an excretory act suddenly finds
himself naked and assisted by vestal maidens while he performs his natural functions into
a sacred vessel. This sort of ceremonial treatment is necessitated by the fact that the
excreta are used by the diviner to ascertain the course and nature of the client’s sickness.
Female clients, on the other hand, find their naked bodies are subjected to the scrutiny,
manipulation, and prodding of the medicine men. The fact that these temple ceremonies
may not cure, and may even kill the neophyte, in no way decreases the people’s faith in
the medicine men.
In conclusion, mention must be made of certain practices that have their base in native
aesthetics, but which depend upon pervasive aversion to the natural body and its
functions. There are ritual fasts to make fat people thin and ceremonial feasts to make
thin people fat. Still other rites are used to make women’s breasts larger if they are small
and smaller if they are large. General dissatisfaction with breast shape is symbolised in
the fact that the ideal form is virtually outside the range of human variation. A few women
afflicted with almost inhuman hyper mammary development are so idolised that they
make a handsome living by simply going from village to village and permitting the natives
to stare at them for a fee.
Our review of the ritual life of the Nacirema has certainly shown them to be a magicridden people. It is hard to understand how they have managed to exist so long under
the burdens that they have imposed upon themselves. But even such exotic customs as
these take on real meaning when they are viewed with the insight provided by Malinowski
when he wrote:
‘Looking from far and above, from our high places of safety in the developed civilisation,
it is easy to see all the crudity and irrelevance of magic. But without its power and
guidance early man could not have mastered his practical difficulties as he has done,
nor could man have advanced to the higher stages of civilisation.’
(From: Horace Miner, ‘Body Ritual Among the Nacirema’ in The American Anthropologist,
1956.)
After reading the above case study, think about your culture and answer the following
questions:
1.
Which room in your home may be referred to as ‘the shrine’? (Para 5)
2.
What ‘charms’ and ‘magical potions’ do you keep in your ‘shrine’ at home? (Para 6)
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3.
Define the ‘ancient and secret language’. (Para 6)
4.
Who are the ‘medicine men’ and the ‘herbalists’? (Paras 5 and 6)
5.
What is a ‘small font’? (Para 7)
6.
Who are the ‘holy-mouth-men’ and what are the ‘rituals of the mouth’? (Para 8)
7.
What are the natives doing when ‘scraping and lacerating the surface of the face
with a sharp instrument’? (Para 10)
8.
What is a ‘latipsoh’? (Para 11)
9.
Who are ‘vestal maidens’? (Para 11)
10.
What is the ‘sacred vessel’? (Para13)
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Cultural differences (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Differences between people within any given nation or culture are much greater than
differences between groups. Education, social standing, religion, personality, belief
structure, past experience, affection shown in the home and a myriad of other factors will
affect human behaviour and culture. Without a doubt, however, there are differences
between cultures as to what is considered polite behaviour.
In Mexico it is customary for the arriving person to greet the others. For instance,
someone who walks into a group of people eating would say ‘provecho’ (‘enjoy your
meal’). In Chile, women often greet both other women and men with a kiss on the cheek.
In Russia, women often walk arm in arm with their female friends. Paying attention to
customs and cultural differences can give someone outside that culture a better chance
of assimilation or acceptance. Ignoring these can get an unsuspecting person into
trouble.
Food and table manners

Most cultures have food taboos. Practising Muslims and Jews will not eat pork;
practising Hindus will not eat beef. People in different conditions (such as pregnant
women or children) may be forbidden certain foods, such as shellfish or nonpasteurised dairy products. Some religions forbid eating certain foods at the same
meal, or cooking them together, even when both are permissible separately, eg. Jews
forbid mixing meat with dairy products.

Animals and parts of animals we consider inedible are regularly eaten, even sought
after, by other cultures, and vice versa. In Switzerland, unlike in the UK, the personal
consumption of domestic animals is not forbidden. In South Korea people eat dogs
and cats. In China, live dogs and cats are sold in food markets for consumption. In
the UK, dead cows are sold at meat markets for consumption, but in India the cow is
sacred and is not eaten. British people often eat apple skin, but in Japan this is
considered vulgar. In Laos, rats are sold in markets to eat – in the UK rats are seen
as vermin and inedible.

Children in the UK are taught to clear their plate at meals in order not to waste food,
but in some cultures, clearing your plate implies that your host did not provide enough
food. In China, finishing everything on your plate is considered rude because
somebody might think you did not get enough food and you are still hungry. Leaving
a little proves that you are full.

In Iran, people eat food with their right hands only. Eating with the left hand is
considered gross because it is used for toilet purposes! In the UK, people eat with a
knife and fork, or right-handed people use only their right hand and left-handed people
use only their left hand to eat. It makes no difference to people in the UK which hand
is used to pass food to someone. In Iran, the left hand is ritually unclean and it would
be rude to pass food with it.

In expensive German restaurants, potatoes should be cut with a fork as it makes a
nice rough cut to hold all the rich, beefy German gravy. In expensive UK restaurants,
this would be considered impolite – a knife would be used to cut the potato smoothly.
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
In Canada, the Inuit people burp as a sign of thanks for excellent food. In the UK, this
would be perceived as bad manners.

In the UK, we consider it bad manners to make chewing or slurping noises when we
eat. In Japan, slurping noodles is a complement to the chef. It means that you like the
food so much you cannot wait to get it in your mouth.
Greetings

In the UK, people greet others by giving a firm but brief handshake. However, in
Brunei it is polite to shake hands only by slightly touching hands and then bringing the
hand back to the chest; it is not customary to shake hands with members of the
opposite sex. In the UK, people shake hands with both sexes.

Men from Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Portugal, Spain, Greece and Italy will
often kiss male friends on the cheeks. Men in the UK are more likely to slap their
friends on the back.

Men from the Middle East often shake hands with a slight nod or bow and then
exchange kisses on both cheeks. They usually do not shake hands with women, nor
do they introduce the women with them. In British culture, it would be very rude not to
introduce the person you were with.

Native Hawaiians hug each other, exchanging breaths. This would seem too intimate
even for close friends in the UK.

People from Cambodia and Laos will often bow with both hands together in front of
the chest as if praying. In Japan, the depth of the bow signifies the level of respect for
the other party. In the UK, people shake hands rather than bow.

Adults in the UK may affectionately pat young children on the head, but this would be
upsetting for many Asians, as the head is the repository of the soul in Buddhist
religion. Children from cultures that are influenced by Buddhism will feel
uncomfortable if their head is touched.
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Gestures

In the UK, people may beckon others with their index finger to indicate ‘come here’.
However, to motion with the index finger to call someone is insulting in the Middle
East, Far East, Portugal, Spain, Latin America, Japan, Indonesia and Hong Kong. In
these parts of the world, it is more acceptable to beckon with the palm down and
fingers or whole hand waving.

In the UK, it is acceptable to sit with crossed legs, but to sit with soles facing another
person demonstrates disrespect in Thailand, Japan, France, Middle or Near East.
This is because you are exposing the lowest and dirtiest part of the body so it is
regarded as insulting.

Forming a circle with fingers indicates ‘OK’ in the UK, but in Japan this gesture
suggests money while in Brazil and Germany it is obscene.

In Japan, it is considered rude to pass even small items like a pencil to another
person using only one hand – two hands must be used. In the UK it is acceptable to
pass small items with one hand.

Nodding one’s head up and down in the UK indicates ‘yes’. In Bulgaria and Greece,
the same gesture indicates ‘no’.
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The chart below shows some general differences between the Chinese and
Western cultures
Chinese
Americans
Conception of ‘the self’
Collectivist: Higher value
Individualist: Higher value
placed on group cooperation placed on self-reliance. Selfand individual modesty.
promotion is more accepted.
High value placed on ‘freedom’
from externally imposed
constraints.
Social relationships
Formal, hierarchical. People
most comfortable in the
presence of a hierarchy in
which they know their
position and the customs/
rules for behaviour in the
situation.
Informal, egalitarian. People
most comfortable with their
social equals; importance of
social rankings minimised.
Friendships
Small number of close, lifelong friends who feel deeply
obligated to give each other
whatever form of help might
seem required.
Large collection of ‘friends’ and
acquaintances that changes
over time and involves only
limited mutual obligations.
Obligation
Relationships with other
people involve reciprocal
obligations.
People avoid inter-dependent
relationships and situations that
might entail long-term
obligations.
Task versus relationship
orientation
Relationship-oriented:
Maintaining a harmonious
relationship has priority over
accomplishing tasks.
Task-oriented: Relationships
are less important than getting
the work done.
Harmony versus ‘truth’
Avoid direct confrontation,
open criticism, and
controversial topics.
Concern maintaining
harmony and with ‘face’.
Willing to confront directly,
criticize, discuss controversial
topics, press personal opinions
about what they consider ‘the
truth’. Little concern with ‘face’.
Role of laws, rules, and
regulations
More faith in personal
relationships than in written
rules and procedures for
structuring interactions.
Written rules presumably apply
to everyone and are assumed
to produce fair, reasonable
procedures and decisions.
Time consciousness
Relatively more attention to
the past and to the longerterm future.
Less interested in the past; eye
on near-term future.
Ascribed versus achieved
Traditionally, a person’s
status
status in the society was
based importantly on
inherited characteristics,
such as age, gender, and
family. This is changing.
People’s status is based mainly
on their own achievements,
including education obtained
and level of success realised in
their line of work.
(This chart was inspired by the following presentation: Li Qing (1995) ‘Face, Guanxi, Houmen(r) &
Elastic Rules: Insight into the Chinese Culture.’ Presentation at conference of NAFSA: Association
of International Educators.)
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Student Activity: Chinese culture (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Read the following article and complete the table that follows.
Easter union
In China there has been a huge increase in weddings in the last few days. Registration
offices have extended their opening hours to accommodate the prospective brides and
grooms queuing outside their doors from as early as 5am. This demand is due to new
legislation that permits people for the first time to marry without permission from their
bosses and an intrusive medical check. Up to the start of this month couples who wanted
to marry had to get a letter of approval from their work and had to be examined for
sexually transmitted diseases, mental illness and hereditary conditions.
In addition to the families’ medical history, the women’s menstruation patterns and the
physical state of the couple’s sexual organs were closely examined. After the procedures
were carried out the couples were presented with condoms and a pamphlet on family
planning from the government. It is feared, however, that some immoral doctors may still
insist on the tests as they provided a significant source of income. Pre-marriage
examinations may still be used in the countryside to monitor the health of the
impoverished rural population.
In China it will still be illegal for couples with mental illness to marry and the government’s
one-child policy remains in place.
(Adapted from The Guardian, ‘Eastern union’ by Jonathan Watts, Friday October 3, 2003)
Describe the comparative experience in the UK to each example of Chinese culture
relating to the family.
Chinese culture
UK culture
It is likely that pre-marital examinations are
still used in the countryside to monitor the
health of the impoverished rural population.
It is illegal for couples with mental illness to
marry.
The ‘one-child policy’ remains in China.
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In the UK, the government does not
intervene in how many children people
have.
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Student Activity: Ju/’hoansi society (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Read the following article and answer the questions below.
Ju/’hoansi society (pronounced zhutwasi)
These are people sometimes known as Bushmen. They live in the Kalahari Desert.
They used to be hunter-gatherers, but now they are more settled. Ju/’hoansi society
was egalitarian, but since the South African government brought them under
government control in the 1960s there has been some social disintegration. Aid
organisations have stepped in to preserve some way of life although this has
changed more to husbandry and cattle rearing. This involves tending small herds of
goats and planting small plots of land.
Ju/’hoansi use many plants and animals in their diet. This gives them variety when
possible. However, when food is difficult to get they eat the nuts of the mongongo
tree. These are rich in protein and there are plenty of them. They can be easily
stored and, therefore, keep for a long time. This means, for example, in times of
drought Ju/’hoansi survive better than groups who keep cattle or grow things
because they rely heavily on water.
Each band has a territory that is a series of waterholes. Usually, this consists of a
group of brothers, sisters and cousins who ‘own’ this land. However, ownership is
not the way we understand it. They cannot buy or sell land.
Children are treated kindly and indulged and do very little work. Children of both
sexes and different ages play together in a co-operative way. Male and female
children receive the same attention and although women give long and intensive care
to the children, fathers and men take an active part in child rearing.
For those bands who forage there appears to be great equality. Dominance and
aggression are not accepted in either sex. Both men and women are mild-mannered
and women are as energetic and independent as men. Where people have settled,
the pattern of male and female roles have changed from traditional society. Women
now spend more time in the home and men spend more time outside the home.
Girls are expected to help around the home and with younger children, be more
obedient and quiet and sensitive. Ju/’hoansi do not approve of aggression, but boys
must make the transition to manhood by tracking and killing a large antelope. Group
violence does not happen although there can be aggression between individuals on
occasion. These disputes are usually marital or over women. A man who gives his
arrow to another hunter can claim a share of the game. The game belongs to the
person whose arrow killed it.
Each Ju/’hoansi band is composed of a group of families who live together and
leadership is informal. Each band is linked to one another and has a headman and
sometimes headwoman. The headman/woman is known as kxau or ‘owner’,
although, as we have seen, they cannot buy or sell the land. Ownership simply
symbolises the rights of that group to be there. If a headman/woman leaves the
territory someone else in the band would become the head.
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People who break the social norms are judged by group disapproval. Usually,
disputes are resolved by the person moving away to another group with whom they
have kinship ties. The Ju/’hoansi believe spirits shoot invisible arrows carrying
disease or bad luck. Arrows must be prevented from striking or must be removed if
they have struck. Drawing out the invisible arrows is the job of the healers. These
healers possess a special power called n/um. This power is released when the
healer goes into a trance. They are assisted in this by others singing and dancing
and playing drums. The healer lays hands on all sitting round the fire so all can
benefit from this healing power.
Questions:
1.
People in Ju/’hoansi society earn their living through husbandry and cattle rearing.
How do most people in the UK earn their living?
2.
When food is difficult to get people in Ju/’hoansi society eat the nuts from the
mongongo tree. Is food ever difficult to get in the UK?
3.
In Ju/’hoansi society people cannot sell or buy land. Is this the case in the UK?
4.
Boys in Ju/’hoansi society make the transition to manhood by tracking and killing a
large antelope. Is there a similar rite of passage for boys in the UK?
5.
According to Ju/’hoasnsi society, what causes diseases?
individual be treated? Is this the same as in the UK?
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Student Activity: Masai culture (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Read the following article from The Guardian and complete the table that follows.
For copyright reasons, this image is unavailable
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Describe the comparative experience in the UK to each example of Masai culture.
Masai culture
UK culture
Girls can marry at age 10.
It is believed that girls should marry soon
after the onset of puberty.
Masai fathers arrange their daughter’s
marriage.
Girls are exchanged for 1 cow, a crate of
beer and 40 litres of home-brewed alcohol.
Before marriage girls must undergo the
ritual of circumcision.
Masai men may have as many wives as
possible.
A woman’s education should come from
her mother, not from school.
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In the UK, it is compulsory that both boys
and girls attend school up to the age of 16.
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Culture
 Culture: the way of life of a
particular society, including
language, dress, customs,
beliefs, relationships, history,
traditions, knowledge, skills,
values, norms
 Sub-culture: groups that differ
from the dominant culture in
terms of dress, norms, values,
language
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Agents of socialisation
 The family
 The peer group
 Education
 Work
 Religion
 Mass media
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Agents of socialisation
The Family (Intermediate 1)
Definition

The family is seen as an important building block of society. It takes various
forms in different societies, but all societies have some form of the family.
The family and socialisation



For many people their first contact is with members of the family. This means a
newborn child is open to all the influences of their family.
The family is one of the main agents in primary socialisation, which takes
place in the first few years of life.
As children grow up they meet other people and come across other situations
and the influence of the family may lessen.
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What we learn through the family


We may learn formal skills, such as driving, cooking, gardening, raising
children, reading, counting, and so on.
We also learn many informal things, such as manners, obedience, respect,
attitudes, and so on.
Roles within the family




Roles within the family include child, brother/sister, mother/father, grandparent.
The behaviour expected from these roles has changed over time. At one time,
the role of the child was to ‘be seen and not heard.’ Nowadays, the child is
encouraged to speak out and be part of what is going on.
At one time the role of father involved going out to work, while the role of
mother involved staying at home and caring for the children. This is no longer
always the case. Both parents may go out to work, or the mother may go out to
work and the father cares for the children, or neither parent may work.
These days, many families are one-parent, meaning that a single parent may
either stay at home and look after the children or combine paid work with
looking after the children.
Negative aspects of the family



Some sociologists and many political, religious and social commentators
suggest the family is the best place to socialise children as it offers a warm and
secure environment.
However, this is not always the case and living in a family may not be a happy
experience.
Many people experience the ‘dark side of the family’, such as aggression,
violence, abuse, crime, drug-taking and alcohol abuse in the home.
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The family and social order



The family can also be seen as helping to keep social order in society.
Members of the family provide guidelines for family members to follow the
rules of society.
Members of the family can help control behaviour that is unacceptable.
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The Family (Intermediate 2)
The family is seen as an important building block of society. It takes various forms in
different societies, but all societies have some form of the family. The most common
family structure in the UK is the nuclear family. A nuclear family consists of a mother,
father, and their biological or adoptive descendants, often called the traditional family.
The nuclear family can be a nurturing environment in which to raise children as long as
there is love, time spent with children, emotional support, low stress and a stable
economic environment. In nuclear families, both adults are the biological or adoptive
parents of their children.
One of the most striking changes in family structure since the 1980s has been the
increase in the number of single parent families. In this family type, there is only one
parent in the household raising the children. Due to high divorce rates, the greater
economic independence of women, improved contraception, changing social attitudes
and adults choosing not to marry, this is currently the fastest growing family form in the
UK. The vast majority of these families are headed by women.
Too often, children living in single parent households have to contend with negative
stereotypes and hurtful remarks made by insensitive adults. Regardless of whether the
single parent family exists as a result of divorce or death of the other parent, or the parent
choosing not to marry, the child is clearly not responsible for the circumstances. However,
it is often the child who pays the price. On the other hand, single parent families often
have less tension compared to the tension in families before a divorce. With reduced
tension, the single parent can focus more clearly on the child’s needs. Usually, parents
and children are more willing to co-operate with each other to find solutions to solve
household problems in single parent families.
An extended family is two or more adults from different generations of a family, who
share a household. It consists of more than parents and children; it may be a family that
includes parents, children, cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, foster children, etc. The
extended family may live together for many reasons, such as helping raise children,
supporting an ill relative, or helping with financial problems. Sometimes children are
raised by their grandparents when their biological parents have died or no longer can take
care of them. Many grandparents take some primary responsibility for childcare,
particularly when both parents work. Extended families can be found all over the world in
different communities and cultures.
A childless family is simply two people from all kinds of backgrounds and all walks of life
who, for whatever reason, have never had children. Most have thought long and hard
about parenthood and many have concluded (for various reasons) that it really was not
right for them, while some are still in the decision-making process. Others will probably
have children at some time in the future, but are not ready just yet (even though all of
their other friends are having theirs now and are urging them to catch up), and some
wanted to have children but were unable to because of a variety of social and/or
biological forces that interfere and result in unplanned childlessness. Many childless
families choose not to have children because they concentrate on their careers, or like to
travel. The increase in childless families is due to the ageing of the population and to
more and more couples deciding not to have children. Families without children at home
have different interests, more free time and often greater financial resources than couples
with children.
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Reconstituted families develop when one or both of the adults have children from a
previous relationship. In reconstituted families, both parents usually participate in the
financing of the joint children’s day care, clothing and hobbies, just as in nuclear families.
On the other hand, the joint financing of the stepchildren’s ‘special expenses’ is less
common. In reconstituted families where the parents are married and also when the
family has joint children, it is much more common for the mother to receive financial help
from the stepfather in order to pay for her own children’s expenses. In reconstituted
families, both the man and the woman participate in the living expenses and food costs of
the mutual home. Whether the couple is married or cohabiting, or whether they have joint
children or if there are only stepchildren in the family does not affect the matter.
Same-sex families have also expanded in the UK. For many years now, both lesbians
and gay men have set out to create their own families with children, often with partners
and sometimes with a partner coming into a family after a child's birth.
The reason family is seen as so important is because for many people their first contact is
with members of the family. This means a newborn child is open to all the influences of
her/his family. The family is one of the main agents in primary socialisation that takes
place in the first few years of life. Through interaction with their families, children are
helped to acquire language and other essential skills. As children grow up, they meet
other people and situations and the influence of the family may lessen.
We may learn formal skills, such as driving, cooking, gardening, raising children,
reading, counting, and so on, within the family. We also learn many informal things,
such as manners, obedience, respect, gender roles, attitudes, and so on.
We also take on roles within the family. Roles within the family include child, brother,
sister, mother, father, grandparent. The behaviours expected from these roles have
changed over time. At one time, the role of the child was to ‘be seen and not heard.’
Nowadays, the child is encouraged to speak out and be part of what is going on. At one
time, the role of father involved going out to work, while the role of mother involved
staying at home and caring for the children. This is no longer always the case. Both
parents may go out to work, or the mother may go out to work and the father cares for the
children or neither parent may work.
Some sociologists suggest the family is the best place to socialise children as it offers a
warm and secure environment. However, this is not always the case, and living in a
family may not be a happy experience for some children or, indeed, parents. Many
people experience the ‘dark side of the family’, such as aggression, violence, abuse,
crime, drug-taking and alcohol abuse in the home. In this case, the socialisation process
is likely to be a negative one for people.
The family can also be seen as helping to keep social order in society. Members of the
family can help control behaviour that is unacceptable and provide guidelines for family
members to follow the rules of society.
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Tutor Guide: Student activity on the family (Intermediate 1 and 2)
The introductory activity is designed to help the student think about the amount and types
of influence the family might have had in the socialisation process. It can be used for the
basis of a class discussion. The activity is for both Intermediate 1 and 2.
As there is a possibility that there may be pupils/students in a class that do not come from
one of the main family types – eg. they may live in a foster home, children’s home, etc.,
particular care and sensitivity should be given to this topic.
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Student Activity: The family (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Answer the following questions by placing a tick against the statement that relates most
closely to your experience of the family and by writing notes down, as requested in the
question.
1.
How much does the family influence the way you think and behave?
Totally
Very much
Quite a lot
Very little
Not at all
2.
What type of behaviour does the family influence? Give examples or add to the
list below.
Food preferences
Dress sense
Social activities
What you like on TV
Beliefs
The way you think of life
Attitudes towards others
Others (please add)
3.
Write down some of the things you have learned from members of the family.
This could include formal skills or other informal aspects of behaviour.
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The family
 An important agent of
socialisation
 Learn how to cook, garden,
care for pets, read, count
 Learn respect, obedience,
manners
 Learn about the expectations
of different roles
 Provides one with a warm and
secure environment
 Is, for some, a place of abuse
and violence
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Tutor notes on Student Activity: Peer group (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate
2)
This activity will allow students to identify the power of the peer group and will form the
basis of class discussion and the use of the handout that follows.
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Student Activity: Peer group (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Make a list of all the things you feel are important to you and your friends and the things
you share in common. You might want to think about such things as clothes, music,
politics, social activities, career, relationships, and so on.
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To what extent do your friends or people in your age group influence you?
A lot
Quite a lot
Only a little
Not at all
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Peer group (Intermediate 1)
The peer group is one of the most important agents of socialisation – especially in
teenage years. A peer group is a group whose members share a similar status in society.
Members of peer groups are often of a similar age. They usually share a similar social
situation such as school pupils, college students, etc. Most people want to be accepted
by members of their groups so will usually conform to peer group norms. If they do not,
they risk rejection by the group.
The peer group influences a lot of what we do and the way we think. This includes
influence in things such as:

clothes (mostly wearing trainers instead of high heels or only wearing black)

attitudes (towards getting good grades, parents, religion, smoking, drinking)

sexual experience (having underage sex or not)

social activities (going to gigs, taking part in/watching sport, standing on street
corners, watching TV)

music (buying similar CDs, burning music for each other).
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The peer group is important because:

it plays a vital role in forming our identity

it can be a source of understanding and support

we tend to compare ourselves to others in our age group, friends, fellow students,
work colleagues

the peer group can be negative. For example, it can put pressure on people to
behave in a specific way, not always of benefit to themselves or others

negative effects of peer pressure can be seen in petty crime and lack of success
at school.
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Peer group (Intermediate 2)
A peer group is a group of people of similar age, status and interests with whom one
mixes. As adolescents pull away from their parents, their friendships become a safe
haven. As pre-adolescents begin rapid physical, emotional and social changes, they
begin to question adult standards and the need for parental guidance. They find it
reassuring to turn for advice to friends who understand and sympathise – friends who are
in the same position themselves.
The peer group is a source of affection, sympathy and understanding; a place for
experimentation; and a supportive setting for finding one’s own identity, separate and
independent from parents.
Peer groups often dress alike; they also behave alike and form clubs, or cliques; some
with secret codes or rituals, such as fraternities for male students in the US often having
to undergo ‘hazing’, which has taken many forms, often resulting in self-deprecation or
harm (eg. branding with hot irons used for cattle, beatings, shavings, etc.). Another
example of a peer group with secret codes and rituals is the male organisation, the
Masonic Lodge. For many peer groups, the codes and rituals are much less profound.
The right friendships can minimise a person’s vulnerability to the temptations s/he must
deal with, especially if their relationship with the group is long-term. Making one’s own
friends is an important part of growing up and developing communication skills.
A need to be liked is paramount, and a peer group has much influence on the
adolescent’s response to the issues of teen life. People generally try to gain acceptance
among their peers by conforming to the group’s social norms. These norms may
involve stereotyped masculine and feminine roles. For example, among male peer
groups, interests and norms may focus on activities like football, music, computers and
cars, whereas female interests may centre on interests such as relationships, fashion and
dancing. The peer group can exert social pressure to conform to these interests. For
example, a boy who attends ballet classes would be likely to be ridiculed by his peer
group. Such pressures can help to discourage participation in activities that do not
conform to gender stereotypes.
There are many types (eg. romantic ties) and levels (eg. crowds) of peer relationships.
Teenagers have multiple peer relationships, and they confront multiple ‘peer cultures’
that have remarkably different norms and value systems. More often than not, peers
reinforce family values, but they have the potential to encourage problem behaviour as
well. At school, playing truant, being disruptive in class, and destroying school property,
may replace the values of studying and exam success. Peer group pressure may give
young people the confidence to get involved in acts of delinquency, which they would not
engage in on their own. Young people often give up crime as adulthood, marriage,
parenthood and employment give them a more clearly defined status in society, and the
peer group becomes less important in achieving status.
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Peer group
 An important agent of
socialisation (especially in
adolescence)
 Influences what one does and
thinks in terms of clothes,
lifestyles, sexual experiences,
social activities, music,
attitudes
 The peer group is important in
forming one’s identity and can
be a source of support and
understanding
 The peer group could
encourage one to participate in
acts of delinquency
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Student Activity: Education (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
The exercise is designed to highlight the types of learning that take place, but also to
demonstrate that not all learning takes place within an Education setting. This activity
can be done individually, in small groups or as a class group.
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Student Activity: Education (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Write down some of the things you have learned in school or education.
Write down a list of things you have learned outside school or education.
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Which of the above two lists do you feel has had the most influence on you and why?
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Education (Intermediate 1)
Education in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom all children must be educated by law.

This usually takes place in the formal setting of a school.

Compulsory education takes place from 5-16 years.

Some children start formal education as early as 4 and many continue at school
until they are 18.

Even after this people choose to continue their education at college or
university.
Education in other societies



In the United Kingdom we have a formal educational system.
In other societies this may be less formal and children may be trained and
educated by adults or older children. More than half of Afghanistan’s children
don’t attend primary school. Of those attending primary school, only 9% go on
to secondary school.
In the UK, approximately 50,000 families educate their children at home but the
national curriculum must be followed.
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Education and socialisation

As so much of education takes place between 5-16 years of age it is seen as a
very important agent in socialisation.

School is one of the main agents in secondary socialisation. This is
socialisation that takes place outwith the immediate family or carers.
Learning formal skills

Education provides members of society with many of the formal skills that are
necessary to survive in society.

In the United Kingdom a lot of emphasis has been put on such skills as reading,
writing and arithmetic.

In other societies, how to make hunting weapons, how to fish or look after
animals, for example, may be important for people in that society to be able to
survive. Education has always been an important part of Aboriginal culture.
Elders passed on the culture and way of life to children through intricate stories
and styles of play that developed and expanded, as the children grew older.
This form of education gave the children all the knowledge and skills required to
respect and care for their family, take part in ritual life, understand plants and
animals, and to live in harmony with their land. In the 1960s there was a push
to assimilate Aboriginal education as part of a universal education system. It
was not, however, until the 1970s that Aboriginal people’s needs and views
were peripherally included in the planning of the education system.
Learning informal skills

We also learn lots of other things, such as working co-operatively, respect for
our elders and how to interact with others, such as members of the class or
group.
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Education and social order

Some sociologists have also suggested that education is also a way of
influencing the values and behaviours of others. Some people see this as
good. Others think this depends on whose values and behaviours we are
teaching.

Sociologists talk about a ‘hidden curriculum’. By this they mean that children
learn obedience, how to be punctual and not to question authority. This means
these skills will be useful for the workplace, where such factors will be wanted
by employers.
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Education (Intermediate 2)
In the United Kingdom, all children must be educated by law. This usually takes place in
the formal setting of a school. Compulsory education takes place from 5-16 years.
However, some children start formal education as early as 4 and many continue at school
until they are 18. Even after this, people may choose to continue their education at
college or university.
In the United Kingdom, we have a formal educational system. However, in other
societies this may be less formal and children may be trained and educated by adults or
older children. More than half of Afghanistan’s children do not attend primary school due
to a lack of teachers and poverty. In the UK, approximately 50,000 families educate their
children at home but the national curriculum must be followed.
As so much of education takes place between 5-16 years of age, it is seen as a very
important agent in socialisation. School is one of the main agents in secondary
socialisation, which is socialisation that takes place outside the immediate family.
Education provides members of society with many of the formal skills that are necessary
to survive in society. In the United Kingdom, a lot of emphasis has been put on such
skills as reading, writing, IT and arithmetic. In other societies and in pre-industrial times,
how to make hunting weapons, how to fish or look after animals, for example, may be
important for people in that society to be able to survive. What people learn at school will
generally affect the kind of job and training opportunities are open to them.
Modern industrial societies are generally said to be meritocratic, with social positions
being achieved on the basis of experience and exam performance. Sociological
evidence, however, has made it clear that not all children of the same ability achieve the
same success in education and, therefore, inequalities in educational opportunity
remain. The social class of a child’s parents, ethnicity and gender all influence how
well people do in education.
Sociologists talk about a ‘hidden curriculum’. By this, they mean the hidden teaching of
attitudes and behaviour that are taught at school through the school’s organisation and
teachers’ attitudes, but which are not part of the formal timetable. We learn things such
as working co-operatively and how to interact with others, such as members of the class
or group. The hidden curriculum emphasises the differences betweens girls and boys
and encourages different forms of behaviour from both sexes. The types of home or
background children come from often influence teachers’ expectations. If teachers’
expectations are low, the children may in turn lower their aspirations and are more likely
to fail. The hidden curriculum encourages children to learn and conform to the values
and norms expected by society. Those children who learn obedience, punctuality,
respect for authority, acceptance of their powerless position, etc., are likely to be
rewarded, while the non-conformists may find themselves getting into serious trouble.
Some people see this as necessary and good. Others think this depends on whose
values and behaviours we are teaching.
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Education
 An important agent of
socialisation
 Teaches formal skills, including
IT, reading, writing and
arithmetic
 Teaches informal skills,
including how to make friends,
how to respect authority, how
to abide by a dress code
 The ‘hidden curriculum’
encourages children to learn
and conform to the values and
norms of society
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 Some sociologists argue that
the norms and values being
enforced in the education
system are more applicable to
some groups than others
 Others argue that the norms
and values being taught in
schools will allow the child to
be integrated into society
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Work (Intermediate 1)
What is work?

Work can be paid, such as when we receive a wage or salary.

It can also be unpaid. For example, people who do voluntary work do so
because they feel they are ‘doing good’.

Housework is also a form of work, usually unpaid.

We often talk about ‘going out to work’ because we go to a shop, factory or
office to work for an employer. However, some people work at home.

In UK society, most people go out to work, but this has not always been the
case (in pre-industrial times home and work were often the same place) and is
not true of every society.
What we learn through work

Work is seen as an important agent of socialisation because it helps us to learn
many things or skills. For example, think about being an apprentice, or a
trainee nurse, or a telesales person, or a police constable. All of these jobs
involve learning skills that we can use for ourselves and others.

We also learn lots of other things through work. For example, we learn to take
on responsibility and to behave like an adult. If we work in a specific job we
may learn other things, such as ways of dressing, speaking or socialising.
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Work and social roles

Work gives us a role in society.

The role of worker is valued in our society.

If someone asks us about ourselves, we often describe the job we do. In this
way, it becomes part of our identity.
Work and social order

Work is sometimes seen as useful because it gives people something to do. It
keeps people out of trouble and usefully occupied.

Some have argued that the way work is organised – eg. fast food shops and
factory work – keeps people in line. It is seen as a way of controlling people
and does not really teach the individual any useful skills.
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Work (Intermediate 2)
Work is seen as very important in UK society. Work can be paid, such as when we
receive a wage or salary. It can also be unpaid. For example, people who do voluntary
work do so because they feel they are doing a social good or see it as a stepping-stone to
paid employment. Housework is another example of unpaid work.
Work goes on in many places. For example, we talk about ‘going out to work’ because
we go to a shop, factory or office to work for an employer. However, some people work at
home. This is becoming more common with the rise in technology and the application of
‘hot-desking’. With hot-desking, workers do not have their own desks, but are allocated
workspace according to their needs, keeping their personal belongings in lockers or filing
cabinets when not in the office. The system is heavily dependent on computers to route
telephone calls, allocate resources and maintain individual working files. In UK society, it
remains the norm, however, for most people to go out to work, but this has not always
been the case and is not true of every society.
Before the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the second half of the 18th
century, craftsmen and women produced goods in their homes and in small workshops.
This type of production is often referred to as cottage industry. This did not apply under
feudalism, however. Throughout most of medieval Europe, society was dependent on
the feudal system, which was based on the allocation of land in return for service. The
peasants, at the lowest level in society, worked on the land itself and had virtually no
rights. The feudal system was fully abolished in Scotland in November 2004, but well
before this time working relationships had undergone many changes.
Work is seen as an important agent of socialisation because it helps us learn many
things. For example, think about being an apprentice, or a trainee nurse, or a telesales
person, or a police constable. All of these jobs involve learning specific skills that we
can use to help benefit ourselves and others, eg. learning how to communicate with
customers, patients and victims can improve our personal relationships in general.
We also learn lots of other things through work. For example, we learn to take on
responsibility and to behave like an adult. We learn how to work as part of a team.
Some sociologists think work helps in the process of becoming an adult. When we start a
new job it is necessary to learn the culture of the workplace. We may pick up tips from
colleagues informally about the importance of punctuality, the use of the telephone for
private calls, how to approach the boss and who gets the milk for the coffee!
Work is also seen as important because it gives us a role in society. The role of worker is
valued in our society. If someone asks us about ourselves, we often describe the job we
do. In this way, it becomes part of our identity. A person’s occupation indicates their
level of education, income, social class and lifestyle.
Work is sometimes seen as useful because it gives people something to do. In this way,
it keeps people out of trouble and usefully occupied. Others have argued that the way
work is organised – eg. fast food shops and factory work – keeps people in line. It is
seen as a way of controlling people and does not really teach the individual any useful
skills. Work may have a detrimental effect on one’s family life and personal health.
Long working hours may lead to less time available for family life, friends and leisure
activities. High levels of responsibility, heavy workloads, overcrowded work-spaces,
temporary contracts, uncooperative colleagues and a bullying culture may produce
stress-related illnesses in the individual.
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Tutor Guide: Student activity on work (Intermediate 1 and 2)
The activity is designed to help students think about work as an agent of socialisation.
They can use their own experience in part-time/full-time work or they could think of a
person they know who is working. This activity is for both Intermediate 1 and 2.
In the Student Activities on ‘work’ the students are invited to complete boxes with
appropriate statements. The tutor may use her/his discretion whether or not to provide
one statement as an example.
For example: Give three reasons why people work?
1 To give them a sense of purpose.
2
3
What formal skills might people learn through work?
1 How to use a photocopier.
2
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What other forms of social behaviour might people learn at work?
1 How to ask for support.
2
Give two advantages that work might have for society as a whole.
1 Stops people from being dependent on the state therefore work saves money.
2
Give two advantages work might have for the individual.
1 Can increase one’s feeling of worth.
2
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Student Activity: Work (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
Give three reasons why people work.
1.
2.
3.
What formal skills might people learn through work?
1.
2.
What other forms of social behaviour might people learn at work?
1.
2.
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Give two advantages that work might have for society as a whole.
1.
2.
Give two advantages work might have for the individual.
1.
2.
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Work
 Important agent of
socialisation
 Learn specific skills
 Develop a sense of
responsibility and how to
function as part of a team
 Provides one with a sense of
identity
 Contributes towards social
order and the survival of
society
 Work-related stress may have
a negative impact on one’s
health and well-being
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Mass media (Intermediate 1)
Definition

When sociologists use the term, mass media, they are describing the forms of
communication that reach a large number of people.
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Forms of mass media

Forms of mass media include:
-
television
-
cinema
-
radio
-
newspapers
-
books
-
magazines
-
the Internet
-
CDs
-
DVDs.

Most people in UK society have access to at least one of these forms.

Many people have access to all of these forms.

Some studies have shown that children spend more time watching television or
playing with their computer than they do in school.
Mass media and socialisation

The mass media is seen as one of the main agents of socialisation in today’s
society.

This does not only apply to Western, developed, countries. Many developing
countries, although poor, have television and satellite links and, therefore, are
also influenced by what is said or shown on television.
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Advertising and the media

The use of advertising is also seen as being harmful as it influences people to
buy products they do not really need.

The influence of the mass media on children has been studied, with a focus on
cartoon violence and adverts for sweets and sugar drinks being shown during
children’s television.
Does the media control us?

Some studies show the media does influence us, but others show people have
a mind of their own.

Some people are concerned about the media because they argue it tells people
how they should live, what type of clothes they should buy, how they should
behave, etc.

The question is whether the people who control the newspapers, television
companies, and so on, are influencing society too much.
Influence of the media – good or bad?

Do the things we read, see and hear simply give us information or do they
actually tell us how to think and feel?

Many programmes, books and newspapers help us learn about other societies
and cultures.

Other influences could be negative, such as violence, aggression, sex, and
drug-abuse.
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Mass media (Intermediate 2)
When sociologists use the term, mass media, they are describing the forms of
communication that reach a large number of people.
Forms of mass media include:

television

cinema

radio

newspapers

books

magazines

the Internet

CDs

DVDs.
Most people in UK society have access to at least one of these forms. Many people have
access to all of them. Studies have shown that children spend more time watching
television or playing with their computer than they do in school. For this reason the
influence of the forms of mass media is of great interest to sociologists.
The mass media is seen as one of the main agents of socialisation in today’s society.
This does not only apply to Western, developed countries. Many developing countries,
although poor, have television and satellite links and, therefore, are also influenced by
what is said or shown on television.
One of the debates relating to the influence of the mass media is whether the things we
read, see and hear, simply provide us with information or whether they actually tell us
how to think and feel.
People who support the view that the mass media educates us point to the many
information programmes on television and radio and the way we can learn about other
societies and cultures.
Others think we are being influenced in a negative way by violence, aggression, sex and
drug-abuse. They are concerned about the media because they believe it tells people
how they should live, what type of clothes they should buy, how they should behave, etc.
They think that the media also instructs people on how they should look, what kind of
house they should live in, what kind of job they should have and even how their
relationships should function. This may lead people to become unhappy with not only
their appearance, but with their whole life.
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The use of advertising is seen as being potentially harmful, as it can influence people to
buy products they do not really need, according to some. The influence on children has
been studied and concern has been raised about the content of cartoons (particularly
violent content) and the advertising of sweets and sugar drinks during children’s
television. In this way, the people who control the newspapers, television companies and
so on, have too much influence and control over society. Those who own and control the
broadcasting and press institutions manipulate the content of the mass media. The
people at the helm use the media institutions for their own purposes, thus becoming
richer and more powerful.
Some studies show that the media does have a strong influence, but others show people
have a mind of their own.
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Tutor Guide: Student activity on the Mass Media (Intermediate 1 and
Intermediate 2)
This Student Activity is a quiz that is designed to help students think about their own
consumption of the mass media and whether this has had any influence on their thinking
or choices as consumers. It would be useful as a basis for class discussion that explores
variations and similarities. This quiz is for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2.
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Student Activity: Mass media (Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
This is an activity that you should undertake on your own.
Answer the following questions.
1. Do you buy a newspaper in your household? If so, which one?
2. What are the main things you read/like about your newspaper?
3. In your house, is the television on:
Always
Most of the time
Sometimes
Only if people are watching something
4. On average how much television do you watch?
1 hour each day
2-3 hours each day
3-5 hours each day
More than 5 hours each day
5. Do you buy a magazine? If so which one? What do you like about it?
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6. Do you listen to the radio? If so which station? What do you like about it?
7. How often do you listen to the radio?
Always
Most days
Sometimes
Never
8. Do you ever use the Internet? If so, for how long and for what purpose, eg. e-mail,
information, buying, selling?
9. Have you ever changed you mind because of something you have read or seen on
television, eg. health, money, habits, attitudes? Give examples.
10. Have you ever bought anything you have seen advertised? Give examples.
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Mass media
 Important agent of socialisation
 Refers to forms of
communication (eg. TV,
Internet, DVDs, CDs,
newspapers) that reach a
global audience
 Some sociologists argue that
the media educate us
 Others argue that they
indoctrinate us
 Some sociologists argue that
the media reflect societal
values
 Others argue that they set
societal values
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Religion (Intermediate 1)
Religion is not just about belief in the supernatural.
It includes:

beliefs

rituals

practices

everyday rules

customs.
Is religion still important?
The United Kingdom

Church attendance in the United Kingdom has been declining. Some people
have said this means the influence of religion is also declining.

Christianity is the dominant religion in the UK.

However, people still go to church for certain events, such as weddings,
funerals and Christenings. Also, Easter and Christmas are still big festivals in
the UK, even if the commercial aspect has become more important.
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Other countries

In some countries, such as the Republic of Ireland, Italy and Poland, the
Catholic religion is still a major force.

In the southern states of the United States of America, Protestant
evangelicalism has a huge influence on people’s lives.
Other religions

In the United Kingdom and in other Western countries, religions such as Islam,
Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism are relatively small but important
religions.

In rural India, the Hindu religion has played a central part in the caste system.

In Iran and Afghanistan, society is run on religious practices that affect every
aspect of people’s lives.
Religion and socialisation

Where religion is a major part of people’s lives it is an important agent of
socialisation.

Children grow up with the beliefs of their parents and community.

The values and social norms that are part of any religion will, therefore, have
an affect on social behaviour.
Religion and social control

Some people say that religion is a good thing and that it helps to keep society
together.

This is because people have common beliefs and guidelines for behaviour.

However, it can also be seen as a way of keeping control of people. This is
because religion lays down what is right and wrong and what will happen if the
rules are broken.

People may be afraid to break the rules because they will be rejected by other
believers. They may also be afraid they will be punished in the afterlife.
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Religion (Intermediate 2)
Christianity is the dominant religion in the United Kingdom, but church attendance has
been steadily declining. Some people have argued that this means the influence of
religion is also declining. However, people still go to church for certain events, such as
weddings, funerals and Christenings. Also, Easter and Christmas are still big festivals in
the UK, even if the commercial aspect has become more important. In some countries,
such as Italy and Poland, the Catholic religion is still a major force and in the southern
states of United States of America, Protestant evangelicalism has a huge influence on
people’s lives.
In the United Kingdom and other Western countries, religions such as Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism are important. Most religions contain rituals,
such as getting on your knees to pray, church services, singing, fasting, or lighting
candles. Rituals or ceremonies may be conducted privately or publicly in churches,
mosques, synagogues or temples. In the United Kingdom, Sikh and Hindu temples and
Muslim mosques often play an important part in integrating such communities, acting as
focal points of community life, as well as religious life.
Where religion is a major part of people’s lives, it becomes an important agent of
socialisation. Children grow up with the beliefs of their parents and community. The
values and social norms, which are part of any religion, will therefore have an affect on
social behaviour. The Ten Commandments, with their rules about stealing, murder and
adultery, reinforce Western societies’ norms, in particular. If these rules are broken, most
people will experience a ‘guilty conscious’ about having done something wrong – they
may also be punished by the legal system.
In rural India, the Hindu religion has a central part to play in the caste system. The social
position of individuals is ascribed at birth in accordance with Hindu religious beliefs and
customs. In Iran and Afghanistan, society is run on religious principles that affect every
aspect of people’s lives.
Some argue that religion is a good thing and helps to keep society together because
people have common beliefs and guidelines for behaviour. Society can only survive if
people share some common beliefs about right and wrong behaviour. The 19th century
sociologist, Emile Durkheim, viewed religion as a type of ‘social glue’, binding society
together and encouraging individuals to accept basic social values.
Religion can also be a source of comfort, explanation and meaning for individuals when
faced with difficult times in their lives, such as bereavement. Religious ceremonies, such
as funerals, can provide believers with a sense of belonging and unity.
However, religion can also be seen as a way of keeping control of people. This is
because religion lays down what is right and what will happen if the rules are broken. In
this way, people may be afraid to break the rules because it means being excluded from
their community or they are afraid they will be punished in the afterlife.
Religion is seen by some as attempting to justify existing inequalities in society and
encouraging people to accept such inequalities. It explains the position of the rich and
the poor as ‘the will of God’. In the Christian Bible, poverty is portrayed as a virtue, with
quotes such as ‘It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than for a rich
man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven’ encouraging poor people to accept their lowly
position. By promising a glorious afterlife, religion prevents poor people from challenging
the privileged position of the rich in this life. In the 19th century, Karl Marx described
religion as ‘the opium of the people’, although neo-Marxists now argue that the mass
media has become the opium of the people.
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Religion
 Important agent of socialisation
 In the UK, Christianity is the
dominant religion
 The Ten Commandments
reinforce societal norms &
values in the UK
 Some sociologists argue that
religion keeps society together
by encouraging common
beliefs and providing
guidelines for behaviour
 Others argue that religion
justifies the existence of
inequalities in society,
encouraging people to accept
them
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Socialisation and social order (Intermediate 2)
Social order is the way peace and order is kept in society.
This is done:

formally – through laws

informally – by setting social norms and rejecting those who do not conform.
Social order can come through:

the agents of socialisation

social norms

social roles

values.
Every society has methods of ensuring its members toe the line, of making sure that they
stick to the ‘straight and narrow’. These methods are known as mechanisms of social
control. They make sure that most of the people most of the time conform to society’s
norms and values. Norms and values are necessary and conforming to them must be
enforced for social order to exist. If this were not the case there would be social chaos.
The most obvious form of social control is physical force. Under certain circumstances,
some people have the right to use physical force against others in an attempt to control
their behaviour. The police and armed forces are examples in UK society. They have the
right to handcuff people and restrain them against their will. Other forms of social control
are less obvious.
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Few would regard the family, the peer group, education, religion, work and mass
media as powerful instruments of social control. Yet throughout this Unit we have seen
how these agents of socialisation can get people to behave in certain ways. Many
sociologists would see them as far more important and effective than the whole state
system of control, which ranges from Parliament, which enacts the law, to the police, the
judiciary and the prison service which enforce it.
The family
During their early years, most newborn human babies are largely dependent on their
immediate family for survival. Consequently, parents have considerable power over the
shaping and moulding of their child’s behaviour during infancy.
The family teach the child the social norms and values of their particular culture. The
child’s behaviour is shaped by not only responding to the rewards and punishments
handed out by their parents, but also by imitating the adults’ behaviour.
During primary socialisation, the child becomes committed to the basic norms and values
of her/his society. S/he feels that the norms and values are right and experiences guilt if
s/he departs from them. The child internalises the cultural norms and values. The child
develops a strong emotional bond with the parents and is motivated to please them,
therefore is keen to abide by the norms and values approved by her/his parents.
Throughout the lifespan, most people seek to gain familial approval. The consequences
of disappointing family members often prevent us from departing from social norms and
values. In this respect, the family can be seen as a mechanism for social control.
The peer group
Members of a peer group share a similar status in society. They are often of a similar age
and share a similar social situation. They are important agencies of social control
because most people want to be accepted by members of their group and will, therefore,
usually conform to peer group norms to avoid rejection and/or ridicule. People are
concerned about what their peer group thinks of them. Approval by group members
makes them feel good, while disapproval can be upsetting. The peer group can play a
significant role in controlling behaviour because members’ opinions are held so highly.
Therefore, the peer group can be seen as a mechanism for social control.
Education
Schools encourage children to learn and conform to the norms and values expected by
socialisation. They therefore act as important agencies of social control. Children learn
to adopt societal norms and values via the ‘hidden curriculum’, which emphasises:
obedience; punctuality; conformity to society’s rules and laws, whether you agree with
them or not; respect for elders; competitiveness; acceptance of tedious tasks. Pupils who
conform to the hidden curriculum are likely to be rewarded, while those who do not are
likely to be labelled as non-conformists and ‘troublemakers’. Therefore, education can
be seen as a mechanism for social control.
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Work
There are often strong pressures from colleagues and managers to conform to workrelated norms. An individual who does not conform could be labelled as ‘uncooperative’
and may be denied promotion opportunities, given undesirable tasks, or even dismissed.
Colleagues may use negative sanctions, such as refusing to talk to or ridiculing the
individual who fails to conform to their norms. Many people consequently conform to the
norms to enable them to attain their career aspirations and make the working
environment more pleasant. The workplace is, therefore, a mechanism for social
control.
Religion
Religion is often perceived as a belief in some kind of supernatural power that influences
or controls people’s lives. Religion often promises rewards, such as everlasting
happiness, to those who follow its teachings, and punishments, such as eternal
damnation, for those who do not. Religion encourages people to accept their lowly
positions in society in anticipation of their reward in ‘heaven’.
Religious teachings are often similar to the values of society, eg. in Christianity the ‘10
Commandments’ reflect the legal system and/or commonly held morals in the UK.
Religion, therefore, strengthens and reinforces societal values, making people more likely
to conform. Religion, therefore, can be seen as a mechanism for social control.
The mass media
The mass media includes television, newspapers, radio, magazines, books, advertising
billboards – any means of communicating with large numbers of people without direct
personal contact. The mass media generally encourages conformist behaviour, such as
conformity to gender roles, often promoted through advertising. It provides people with
a major source of ideas and information. By reporting the serious consequences that
follow for those who break society’s norms and telling people what they should be
thinking about, norm-setting and agenda-setting are effectively carrying out social
control. The mass media can therefore be powerful in shaping attitudes and directing
behaviour. Therefore, the mass media can be seen as a mechanism for social control.
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Student Activity: Socialisation and social order (Intermediate 2)
Quiz
1. What side of the road do we drive on in the UK? Why?
2. What happens if you dial 999?
3. What do you do if you have a throat infection?
4. How do you pay for food when you go to the supermarket?
5. What do you usually call your parents/parent?
6. What would you think if your teacher/lecturer came in and sang the lesson to you?
7. How do you think other members of the class would react if you did not wash for a
month?
8. What do you usually use to eat your food?
9. If you work for an employer, what type of behaviour is usually expected of you?
10. Do you think people expect you to behave in a certain way because you are either
male or female? Give one or two examples.
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Tutor Notes: Revision activity (Intermediate 1 and 2)
This exercise is designed to revise all six agents of socialisation with a focus on how they
operate and the role they play in the socialisation process. Intermediate 1 and 2 have
been differentiated with more support being given at Intermediate 1.
This is a NAB revision sheet for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2.
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Student Activity: Revision exercise on the main agents of socialisation
(Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2)
The mass media includes books and radio.
Name three other forms of mass media. Write these in the boxes below.
1.
2.
3.
Give one example of formal learning and one example of informal learning in
education.
Formal
Informal
Think about how the family is an agent of socialisation.
Read the statements below and decide which ones are true and which are false.
True
False
The family plays a major part in primary socialisation.
The family helps to set guidelines for behaviour.
The family offers security and support to everyone.
Father and mother are social roles found in the family.
The family cannot teach us anything useful.
The family is important to social order in society.
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List three ways in which your peer group might influence the way you behave.
1.
2.
3.
Name two societies where religion is an important agent of socialisation.
1.
2.
Work is an important agent of socialisation. Read the statements below and decide
which statements are true and which are false.
True
False
Work can help in becoming an adult.
Work can teach us skills.
All work is good for us.
Some people believe work keeps people out of trouble.
Some work may not benefit the individual.
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