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Theoretical Perspectives on Socialisation and Culture Structural Theories Structuralists see culture and individual identities as created by society. Individuals are socialised by social institutions (agents of socialisation), e.g. the family which form and limit people’s identities Individuals have little choice over their identities. Functionalism Functionalists like Durkheim and Parsons see learning culture through socialisation as positive. It transmits the norms and values of society. The socialisation process acts as a social glue with shared norms and values (value consensus) ensuring we all agree about how we should behave. Functionalists see socialisation as beneficial for all of society because it allows us all to feel part of society (social solidarity) because we all share the same norms and values. This allows us to cooperate with each other and reduces conflict. It is important that members of a society see themselves as part of a wider group. This social solidarity ensures we don’t do anything to damage the group (society). Parsons Socialisation ensures we internalise society’s values and then keep to them when performing different roles in society. The expectations of different roles reflect the values of society. For example, the norms expected in the role of an employee, such as being hard work, reflect the value society places on hard work. Society remains stable because, most of the time, individuals keep to the requirements of particular roles. Parsons sees family as important in moulding and shaping human identity. Secondary socialisation involves people then adjusting their personality as they encounter different agents of socialisation, e.g. peers. Religion is also a key agent of socialisation that reinforces the social solidarity of a group. Parsons sees people as the sum of the values, beliefs and expectations of society. This is a very structural point of view which sees society as moulding human behaviour. Marxism Marxists see socialisation as negative. They see socialisation and agents of socialisation as a form of social control. The culture of society is the culture of the ruling or dominant class. There is not a value consensus, instead people are socialised into the values of the dominant class. This is known as ruling class ideology and is passed on via socialisation Socialisation reproduces and legitimises existing social inequalities making them seem normal and natural and therefore preventing people from challenging these inequalities. This ensures there is false class consciousness where the proletariat do not realise they are being exploited and do not challenge their exploitation. Bowles and Gintis Argue the education system teaches values such as punctuality, discipline and obedience within the individual via the hidden curriculum. These are qualities that the Marxists think are needed in a capitalist workforce, which make them hardworking but easy to exploit. Feminism Socialisation reinforces and reproduces patriarchy. Feminists see socialisation as a way of reinforcing gender inequality. Heaton and Lawson Argue the hidden curriculum is a major source of gender socialisation within schools. They believe that schools seem to show or have: Textbooks where children are taught from an early age that males are dominant within the family. Different subjects for different genders, e.g. girls do subjects related to traditional roles, such as caring. Sports that are segregated by gender. Majority of teachers are female but head teachers are mainly male. Oakley Argues that the family uses four methods to reproduce gender roles and therefore inequality in society, which maintains patriarchy: 1) Manipulation: children are encouraged to behave in ways appropriate for their gender, e.g. boys are encouraged not to cry. 2) Canalisation: children are directed into activities and toys that are seen as appropriate for their gender, e.g. girls are given kitchen sets as toys. 3) Verbal appellations: parents refer to their children in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes, e.g. boys are called ‘Mummy’s little soldier’. 4) Different activities: children take part in different activities with their parents, e.g. girls help their Mum with cooking. Criticisms of Structural Theories Individuals are seen as simply puppets or what Garfinkel called cultural dopes, where they simply accept norms and values with little input from the individual. According to the interpretivists, individuals can make choices about norms and values. Interpretivist/Social Action Theories Social action theories place more emphasis on the role of individuals in creating culture and their identities. The Looking Glass Self Mead argued that as children grow up they learn to develop a sense of who they are (their self-concept) and what makes them different from others. This occurs during socialisation through social interaction (interacting with other people). As they interact with other people they develop ideas about how others see them and by seeing how people respond to them, they may modify their self-concept and sense of identity and begin to see themselves as others see them. This means the self-concepts and identities of individuals are changing and developing all the time. Cooley developed the concept of the looking glass self to explain this. Cooley argues that our identity is formed based on how we think other people see us. We either behave as we think people see us or we try to change our behaviour to modify people’s views of us. For example, an individual may see themselves as outgoing, friendly and sociable, but others may see them as unfriendly and standoffish. This might result in the individual adopting a new identity where they conform to how others see them or where they change their behaviour to try and change people’s views of them. Impression Management Goffman sees society as like a stage, with people acting out performances. People try to project particular impressions of themselves (the presentation of self and try to convince other people that that is their identity. Goffman also says that whilst there is a public area where we act out our performances, there is also a private area where individuals stop performing and are themselves, such as at home. While the individual may try to present a certain impression to others, there is no certainty that they will succeed. Labelling Becker argues that our identity is influenced by other people’s perceptions of us. This is similar to Mead and Cooley but Becker argues that once people begin to see us as having a particular type of identity that becomes our master status. It becomes very difficult to get rid of this identity and eventually the individual may conform to it. Criticisms of Interpretivist/Social Action Theories Individuals are seen as having too much control over their identity and not enough emphasis is given to the importance of inequality in society and the role of social institutions in influencing people’s identities. While individuals may be able to choose some aspects of their identity, their choices are limited by factors such as wealth, employment etc. Structuration Giddens argues that social structures limit the identities people may adopt, but they also make it possible for people to form identities in the first place. Therefore, whilst there is a structure to society that limits individuals’ identities, individuals can still make choices about the identities they adopt within that framework. The Reflexive Self This refers to the idea that an individual’s identity is formed and develops through a process of reflecting on their identity as they interact with other individuals and the agents of socialisation. Individuals can change their identities as they reflect on themselves. 1) Explain what Goffman means by impression management. 2) Suggest ways in which you try to manage the impressions of yourself that you give to other people. Do you always succeed in giving the impression you want? Why? 3) With reference to Cooley’s idea of the looking glass self, explain, with examples, how the reactions of other might encourage people to change how they view themselves. 4) What is the difference between Becker’s labelling theory and Cooley’s looking glass self? 5) How does the reflexive self differ from the looking glass self? Postmodernism Theorists such as Baudrillard, Lyotard and Jameson all agree that metanarratives cannot explain how society works. These are structuralist theories such as Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism which say all of society behaves in this way, e.g. for Marxism culture, identity and socialisation are all to do with capitalism and class inequality. Postmodernists believe that the norms and values of our society are not transmitted through agents of socialisation in order to benefit rich businessmen, for example. They argue that in a society such as ours which celebrates diversity, there is so much choice for individuals about what identity they adopt. This is helped by consumer culture and the media which provides us with all these choices. We as consumers choose our identity and pick and mix our identities based on what norms and values we want to adopt. Bauman argues we go shopping for identities and can easily change our identity and adopt any identity we want. Because of all the choice available, this has also led to blurring boundaries of different cultures and identities. For example males are increasingly adopting traditional feminine behaviours such as focusing on their appearance. Postmodernist sociologists emphasise how the idea of ‘self’ can change, and they also emphasise the degree of choice we have over our identities.