Download Environmental Issues and Evaluation of Regional Integration and

Environmental Issues and Evaluation of Regional Integration
and Development in the East African Community
Thomas Sowinski
Environmental Management
Senior
Spring 2014
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Abstract
Five nations in East Africa have agreed to form a strong economic and political alliance
in an attempt to develop trade and commerce between themselves as well as in the global
economy to attract foreign investment, spur on extensive development projects, and improve
the lives of their people. Formed in 2000, the East African Community (EAC) has undertaken
ambitious efforts to bring Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi under one political
federation, as well as establish a Common Market and a Monetary Union. If their efforts are
successful the EAC could be a resounding success and a model of stability and economic growth
for other regions that wish to become more prominent in the global economy. However, there
are many factors that could hinder this plan. The region has had a history of mismanagement
and corruption, and large development projects are not being met with the proper
infrastructure or regulations to ensure the stability and sustainability of these efforts. In
addition to these challenges, there are environmental issues associated with this development
that must be addressed if the EAC is going to bring stability and prosperity to the region.
Unrestricted access and the polluting of Lake Victoria have put a serious strain on one of the
region’s most precious resources. Development is also removing habitats, reducing
biodiversity, and putting strain on the other water bodies in the region. If the EAC is going to be
a success, they must consider and react accordingly to the environmental issues they are
experiencing, build the proper infrastructure to meet the demands of their increasing
populations, and establish reforms to address corruption. The purpose of this study is to gain a
better understanding of issues associated with taking on such an ambitious plan. Through
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statistical analysis and analysis of environmental trends, this study serves as an evaluation of
the plan on its effectiveness and potential for the future.
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Background
The regions that are now the East African Community (EAC) have had a strong history of
cooperation with one another. In 1917, the British Colonies Uganda and Kenya formed a
Customs Union to open up their borders to trade with one another, with the former nation of
Tanganyika (the mainland of what is now Tanzania) joining in 1927. Relationships between
these nations developed further in 1948 with the formation of the East African High
Commission, which established a uniform income tax for each nation (Nye, Jr., 1963). Once
East Africa was freed from colonial rule in the 1960’s, the East African Common Service
Organization (EACSO) sought to progress regional integration further, but their efforts were
mostly ineffective due to the organization being perceived as being an extension of colonial rule
over the region. However, there was still interest in strengthening relationships and economic
cooperation in East Africa. In 1967, there was an initial attempt to form an East African
Community, with Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania signing an agreement to address regional
economic and social issues. This agreement only lasted for a decade, however, and it collapsed
in 1977, primarily due to the program lacking direction and the nations’ leaders not being able
to come to an agreement on their visions for the EAC. While there was some interest in
forming an international organization, the various parties were still too concerned with their
own affairs and issues to form an effective international government (Mogumba, 1978).
In the 1990’s, the leaders of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania convened in a second
attempt to form an East African Community. A treaty establishing the EAC was drafted and
signed in 1999 and came into effect on July 7, 2000. Rwanda and Burundi joined the
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organization in 2007, raising membership to five nations and increasing the EAC population to
about 150 million people (African Union, 2014).
Today the EAC is concerned with continually strengthening economic relationships by
removing restrictions on trade and commerce between each Member State. While looking to
improve their intra-regional affairs, the EAC also wants to form a stable international market
and establish trade and build relationships with other regions of the world. Through forming a
central governing body over all five Member States and extensive development projects, the
EAC is trying to attract foreign investment in an attempt to jump up to the global stage (4th
Development Strategy, 2011). Corruption, political instability and mismanagement of their
resources have seriously inhibited these efforts, but there is potential for the EAC to be a
resounding success if it is able to stabilize the regional economy and improve the overall quality
of life for its people.
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Member States
Kenya
Having recently celebrated
their 50th Anniversary of gaining
independence in December 2013,
Kenya is enjoying a period of relative
prosperity. Since 1963, Kenya has
been able to raise their average life
expectancy by 20 years, reduce their
infant mortality rates by half, and
double enrollment in education and
the primary and secondary level. Their GDP per capita has increased eight-fold as well, and
their financial sector is now the third largest in Africa. In 2013 Kenya’s industrial and
agricultural sectors grew by 6.7% and 5.6%, respectively (World Bank, 2014). Their economy is
heavily reliant on agriculture (22% of their GDP) and its primary exports include petroleum
products, articles of apparel, construction materials, steel, soaps, cleansers, and polishes (4th
EAC Development Strategy, 2010).
While there has been substantial progress since their independence in 1963, Kenya still
has many issues that need to be addressed. About 40% of Kenyans still live in poverty and their
maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world. Enrollment in secondary
education is still low as well, and there is a distinct lack of skilled labor as a result. In addition,
their economy is vulnerable to external and domestic forces, such as international oil prices and
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drought. Considering such a large portion of their economy is reliant on proper weather
conditions for agriculture, it is hard to imagine Kenya will be able to stabilize their economy
without growing other areas of their economy as well. The quality of their social services, the
lack of proper infrastructure, and governance are the primary hindrances to shared prosperity
in Kenya (World Bank, 2014).
Uganda
Uganda is poised for economic
prosperity as well. They have an abundance
of natural resources, such as fertile soil,
reliable rainfall, and large mineral deposits of
copper and cobalt. Crude oil and natural gas
were recently discovered in Uganda, which
has opened up the opportunity to attract
foreign investment for construction of oil
refineries and pipelines (World Bank, 2014).
The amount of Ugandans living in
poverty has been reduced to about 22%, exceeding their goal of halving the 56% poverty rate
that was recorded in 1992. Outlook for 2014 is positive, considering their GDP growth has
recently been driven by foreign investment, strong agricultural output, and developments in
their manufacturing industries. Infrastructure projects in the transportation and energy
sectors have resulted in decreases in electricity prices, spurring on private consumption and
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investment (World Bank, 2014). Like Kenya, Uganda’s economy is also reliant on agriculture
(about 50% of their GDP is from agriculture or industry related to agriculture), with its main
exports being vegetables, maize, tobacco, steel, and electricity (4th Development Strategy,
2010). Considering their untapped crude oil, natural gas, and mineral deposits, Uganda has
potential for strong growth and can provide resources for other areas of the EAC that are not as
endowed.
Tanzania
Over the past decade, Tanzania has
seen unprecedented growth. They have
experienced substantial developments in their
service and manufacturing sectors and their
amount of exports has increased five-fold
since 2000. These exports include gold,
coffee, tea, fish, textiles, cashew nuts, and
cotton. There has been a recent discovery of
natural gas in Tanzania, which will give them
the opportunity to further develop trade with other areas of the world. Agriculture is critical to
Tanzania’s economy, providing about 25% of its GDP while also employing about 75% of their
work force (World Bank, 2014).
Their economy is positioned for substantial growth, but Tanzania needs to improve on
their human development if this growth is to be sustained. About 28% of its citizens still live in
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poverty. While this percentage has dropped from about 34% in 2007, the amount of people
living in poverty has not been reduced (about 12 million people), and this reduction in
percentage is due to population increase. Improving the socio-economic conditions for this
large group of people remains a top priority for Tanzania and the EAC (World Bank, 2014).
Rwanda
Rwanda’s economy has been able to
recover since its genocide and civil war in
1994. This landlocked nation has adopted a
strategic vision in which they aim to shift
from a low income agriculturally based
economy to a knowledge based, serviceoriented economy. There is also potential
for growing their tourism industry, as
Rwanda’s mountains have unique forests and
wildlife (World Bank, 2014). Their primary exports include tea, coffee, ores, hides, skins, and
petroleum products (4th Development Strategy, 2011).
There are still many things that Rwanda needs to do in order to attract foreign trade and
investment. Outdated infrastructure and lack of access to electricity are major issues that could
turn away potential investors. Also, to stabilize their economy Rwanda must reduce their
dependence on foreign aid. 40% of their budget comes directly from foreign aid, and while
they have been able to use it effectively on development projects, the Rwandan economy has
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fluctuated directly with the amount of foreign investment they have received (World Bank,
2014).
Burundi
Burundi faces tremendous challenges
in its economic and development efforts.
Thirteen years of civil war has left about 80%
of their population in poverty and their
crumbling infrastructure and subsistence
agriculture have left Burundi as one of the
most undeveloped nations in the world. One
of their main goals is to diversify their
economy, as more than 60% of their export
revenue comes from coffee (World Bank, 2014). Burundi’s lack of resources and proper
development, as well as their widespread poverty forecast that they will have difficulty in the
future; however there is hope that joining a coalition like the EAC will be beneficial.
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Benchmark
GDP Growth
Inflation - Annual Avg. (%)
Interest Rate (%)
>7%
<5%
<10%
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2013
Uganda
7.0
8.1
10.4
3.9
5.6
2.2
Kenya
6.3
7.0
1.5
2.6
5.6
4.4
Tanzania
6.7
7.1
7.4
6.0
7.0
6.5
Rwanda
8.6
7.7
11.5
6.1
7.5
3.9
Burundi
5.2
3.6
4.3
3.5
3.9
4.6
Uganda
7.2
6.1
12.0
13.0
4.0
7.1
Kenya
6.0
4.3
16.2
10.5
4.1
6.3
Tanzania
7.3
7.0
10.3
12.1
5.5
6.1
Rwanda
8.8
9.1
15.4
10.3
2.3
3.4
Burundi
2.7
8.3
24.5
10.5
6.5
5.9
Uganda
18.9
19.1
20.4
21.0
20.2
11.5
Kenya
13.7
13.3
14.9
14.8
13.9
8.5
Tanzania
15.7
14.7
13.6
15.1
14.7
12.0
Rwanda
15.9
16.0
16.3
15.1
17.0
7.0
Burundi
18.0
17.5
16.7
16.5
16.2
11.5
Sources: EAC 4th Development Strategy, Trading Economics
Benchmark
GDP Per Capita (Current US$)
>$3,000
2009
2010
2011
2012
Uganda
495
508
510
589
Kenya
793
810
833
977
Tanzania
491
511
516
599
Rwanda
536
563
624
693
Burundi
213
242
275
282
Source: International Monetary Fund
The tables above provide some summary statistics of each EAC nation. In their Fourth
Development Strategy (2011-2016) the EAC imposed macroeconomic benchmarks for each
Member State to reach. These goals include a GDP growth in excess of 7%, annual inflation
below 5%, interest rates below 10%, and raising GDP per capita to US $3,000. There is no time
table for each Member State to reach these benchmarks, however. If these statistics are used
as an evaluation of their activities so far, there has been incremental progress, but much more
still needs to be done.
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The EAC Member States initially saw an increase in their annual GDP growth, but in 2009
the global financial crisis and a serious drought caused growth to slow. Growth rates have
improved somewhat since 2009 and exceeded the 7% benchmark in previous years, but as of
2013 none of the Member States have been able to sustainably reach this goal. The financial
crisis and drought in 2009 also caused inflation to rise, but it has recovered since. Rwanda has
reached the goal of inflation dropping below 5% in 2013, but it is too soon to say if they will be
able to maintain such low inflation. Interest rates have steadily improved since 2006 overall.
There have also been improvements in each Member States’ GDP per capita, but there is still
much to do if they each hope to reach US $3,000 per capita.
2014 Environmental Performance Index World Rankings
Overall Ranking Child Mortality Air Quality Access to Drinking Water Access to Sanitation Wastewater Treatment Access to Electricity
Kenya
140
147
121
159
152
132
156
Uganda
135
153
160
138
145
129
164
Tanzania
143
141
142
168
171
134
164
Rwanda
146
142
164
150
122
145
172
Burundi
167
167
168
141
133
145
176
Note: Each ranking is out of 178
Source: Yale University
When a nation is attempting to improve their economic standings through large
development projects, and investment, it is important to evaluate the quality of the
environment in which they are operating and how those operations could impact the quality of
their environment. The Environmental Performance Index was an evaluation system developed
by Yale and Columbia Universities to quantify and rank the environmental performance of each
nation’s policies. As can be seen above, none of the EAC Member States have broken into the
top 100 worldwide in child mortality, air quality, access to drinking water and sanitation,
wastewater treatment, or access to electricity. If the EAC has any hope in becoming a stable
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organization that can attract investment they must improve on these numbers, which could
prove to be difficult as they are taking on vast development projects. These projects include
construction of power plants, hydro-electric dams, factories, processing plants, oil refineries,
urban housing, and improvements in agricultural output in order to meet the demands of their
increasing population. These activities will put further strain on air quality, drinking water,
sanitation, and wastewater treatment, meaning additional measures must be undertaken if
these projects are to be sustained in the future.
4th EAC Development Strategy (2011-2016)
The EAC has created a series of development strategies since its inception in 2000 in
order to focus the efforts of the EAC for the future. Their mission states they are “To widen and
deepen economic, political, social, and cultural integration in order to improve the quality of
the people of East Africa through increased competitiveness, value added production,
enhanced trade and investment” (4th Development Strategy, 2011). In order to meet these
lofty goals the EAC has four main objectives: to establish a Customs Union, a Common Market,
and a Monetary Union, in order to establish amongst themselves a political federation. The
timeline for establishing these institutions in the EAC have been pushed back from original
estimates, but the groundwork has been laid for these plans to be fully implemented.
The first goal of the EAC is to fully establish a Customs Union and a Common Market
within the Member States of the EAC. Creating a new market with about 150 million people
leaves many opportunities for strong economic growth, as borders are opened up to facilitate
movement of goods, labor, and capital between the Member States (4th Development Strategy,
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2011). Easing restrictions on trade will encourage more trade to take place, which will improve
economic growth.
Once a Customs Union and a Common Market are established, the next step will be to
create a Monetary Union. This will include forming uniform fiscal, monetary, and exchange rate
policies amongst the Member States, as well as adopting a new currency, the East African
Schilling (4th Development Strategy, 2011). In 2013, the leaders of each Member State signed a
plan to work to establishing the new Monetary Union within the next decade (EAC, 2013).
The final and perhaps most daunting goal of the EAC’s Development Strategy is to unify
each Member State under a single political federation. The EAC must create an international
government essentially from nothing and establish its authority over the region. They have to
create institutions, regulations, agencies, positions of leadership, and a legal system as well as
create a legal framework for them to be able to properly govern the EAC. These efforts will
include adopting and implementing regional policies on issues such as corruption, ethics, and
integrity, as well as creating an EAC Common Foreign Policy (4th Development Strategy, 2011).
Another goal of the Development Strategy is to develop regional infrastructure. To
streamline intra- and inter-national trade the EAC is taking on large road-building projects while
also creating efficient and reliable railway and air transportation networks. To further develop
trade by sea, the EAC is expanding and upgrading their ports in Kenya and Tanzania to facilitate
the needs of larger vessels, and enhance their capacity of ship building and repair yards (4th
Development Strategy, 2011). They must make these upgrades if they are expected to meet
the infrastructural needs of their trade partners.
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Potential for Success
A history of corruption and mismanagement has left the EAC poised for unprecedented
economic growth. Largely untapped resources, opportunities to develop the region’s various
industries, and other strategic advantages will help the EAC attract foreign investment and
improve their people’s quality of life.
One of the most important strengths of the EAC is its relatively central location. The
region’s advantageous location in sub-Saharan Africa will attract business from other regions of
the world. Currently the primary hub for business and trade on the continent is Johannesburg,
South Africa, but with the proper developments to their ports and railway system the EAC could
create a second hub that would give the EAC a significant competitive advantage over
Johannesburg. The port cities of Mombasa, Mtwara, Dar es Salaam, and Tanga are much closer
to other areas of the world. Shipping routes around the Horn of Africa and through the Suez
Canal would open up trade to the entire Mediterranean region, and being closer to the Middle
East, India, and Southeastern Asia than Johannesburg makes the EAC an attractive trading
partner.
Their beneficial location also provides the proper climate for agricultural activity to take
place. Forming the necessary regulations regarding resource management, expanding their
irrigation potential, and adopting the appropriate technological advances will help them take
advantage of their climate to increase their large-scale agricultural production.
The presence of valuable resources that have largely been untapped is the region’s best
opportunity to develop global trade. The recent discovery of crude oil and natural gas in
Uganda and Tanzania makes the region very attractive to foreign investment and trade. In
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February 2014 Uganda signed an agreement worth about US $8 billion with the China National
Offshore Oil Company, France's Total and Ireland's Tullow to build an oil refinery, an export
pipeline to Kenya’s coast and an oil-powered electrical plant. China has invested further in the
EAC, building two massive railways, a route going through Dar es Salaam, Isaka, and Kigali, and
a route through Mombasa, Nairobi, and Kigali which are set to be completed by 2020 (Kantai,
2014). The EAC’s natural resources, through proper management, have the potential to
completely reshape the region if they continue attracting foreign investment.
Another advantage of the EAC is the potential, with proper management, to develop the
region’s tourism industry. The region has a vast range of ecosystems with unique flora and
fauna. The varying climate in East Africa allows for savannah plains in Tanzania and Kenya, and
forests in Western Kenya and Uganda. The EAC plans to advertise themselves as a single
tourism destination (4th Development Strategy, 2011). Before the EAC, it would have been
more difficult for a tourist to travel to each country to explore. Opening up the borders
between the Member States would encourage tourists to travel throughout the region, to help
spread the business and money that enters the EAC.
Challenges to Success
The EAC’s efforts to encourage economic growth, foreign investment, and development
are admirable, and the potential to completely reshape the region for the better exists.
However, there are many issues that could stand in the way and hinder their growth.
Challenges to their efforts include corruption, unequal distribution of wealth and resources,
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crumbling infrastructure, lagging education of public health systems, and regional stability and
security.
Corruption stands as the biggest threat to the EAC. Even if regional integration and
development are successful, corrupt officials could prevent the benefits of these activities from
reaching the people. The perspective that sub-Saharan Africa has a history of mismanagement
and corruption will make potential investors wary of conducting business with the region.
Kenya
Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI),
2013
27
CPI World Ranking (Out of 177)
136
Source: Transparency International, 2014
Uganda
26
140
Tanzania Rwanda
33
111
53
49
Burundi
21
157
As the table above shows, the Member States of the EAC rank poorly overall in terms of
corruption. The Corruption Perceptions Index ranks each nation on a scale of zero to one
hundred. Nations with scores closer to zero are considered to be more corrupt, while scores
closer to one hundred mean nations are less corrupt. Rwanda is the least corrupt nation in the
EAC, being the only Member State to be ranked in the top one hundred globally. Corruption is
a serious issue in the region, and must be stamped out if the EAC is to reach its full potential.
Another serious challenge to the EAC’s success is the unequal distribution of resources
and wealth. Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have the bulk of the resources that the region has to
offer, meaning these Member States will be receiving most of the capital gains and investment.
Rwanda and Burundi have a distinct lack of resources and poor infrastructure, meaning it will
be much more difficult for them to attract foreign investment. Corruption will amplify this
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issue further, with the potential for most of the capital gains to go to people in positions of
power, rather than to the average citizen.
The region’s idle education and public health systems are further hindrances to the
success of the EAC. In order for the region to become a world player, large steps must be taken
to educate their people and keep them healthy. The Member States have a distinct lack of
skilled labor, and considering many of the projects they wish to undertake involve technological
advancement, it is vital that the region educates its people to join the 21st Century economy.
Improving the quality of their water supplies, sanitation, nutrition, and health services such as
proper education and HIV/AIDS treatment will do wonders. Improving the overall standing of
their people will be one of the strongest ways to ensure the success of the EAC. Proper health
services and education will help keep their population growth in check, stabilize communities,
and will create an environment conducive to further investment and development.
Yet another threat to the EAC is public resistance. Poorer, less-educated people of the
region could view this new international government as overreaching and could consider this as
a threat to their way of life (Leach et al, 1999). Many of the EAC’s citizens are primarily
concerned with the survival of themselves and their family, and government actions or
regulations that impose rules on them and would meet resistance. For example, new
regulations have been put in place to improve the monitoring and enforcement of regulations
on fishing activity in Lake Victoria (4th Development Strategy, 2011). A fisherman has been
using illegal fishing gear to provide for himself and his family because previous regulations on
fishing gear have not been enforced. However, due to the new regulations, the fisherman
would be required to buy completely new fishing gear that is legal to use. If he cannot afford to
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make these technological advances, then he would not be allowed to fish on Lake Victoria.
While improved standards and regulations improve living conditions overall, they can be
viewed as a threat to the living conditions they already have. Through proper education, the
EAC hopes to help the public realize that what they are doing is helping them improve their
lives.
Issues with Development
The issues discussed above pose serious challenges for the EAC to overcome if they are
to be successful. However, there are even further challenges to the success of their plans,
primarily in terms of environmental impact. Increasing urban populations, climate change, and
developments such as road building and dam construction will put further strain on the EAC’s
environment and public health and the impact of these actions must be evaluated if the EAC is
going to be sustained.
Urbanization
The human population overall is becoming more urbanized. Only about 5% of the world
population lived in urban areas 200 years ago; today about 50% of the world population lives in
cities. Africa is currently the least urbanized region in the world, but it is also the most rapidly
urbanizing area. Issues such as overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, unsafe drinking water,
vector-borne diseases, dangerous roads, polluted air, and exposure to harmful compounds
have plagued urban centers throughout history. Most developed areas in the world have been
able to take corrective measures to improve urban life, but this is not so much the case in East
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Africa. Large cities in low-income areas have had a history of environmental blight, inadequate
housing, poverty and disease, and these problems can be exacerbated by globalization. With
increased globalization, the focus is outward to new areas to build relationships with, rather
than looking inward towards their own people’s needs. Social change is difficult as the poorer,
uneducated population essentially have no voice or power to make any meaningful changes in
their lives (McMichael, 2000).
Industrialization associated with urbanization will create further issues. Under their
plan, the EAC will build upon their manufacturing sector, primarily in the market of “low-end”
products (McMichael, 2000). New factories will employ many people who were previously
unemployed, but will not provide more advancement than that. Without a proper education,
these people will remain factory workers. This will not improve the lives of the average citizens
in the long-run, and will serve to widen social stratification, as any gains will go primarily to the
owners of the factories, rather than to the employees. The people may be employed, but will
still be in a state of perpetual poverty.
Increased urbanization will increase the amount of power plants, oil refineries, factories,
and automobiles, which will all contribute to the area’s already poor air quality. The
deforestation that occurs as a result of urbanization will also reduce water quality, as more
sediment will enter drinking supplies (Folke et al, 2002). These developments must be met with
the proper regulations and technology to mitigate the environmental impacts and must
improve on the poor environmental conditions that are already present.
Dam Construction
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Further infrastructure developments such as the construction of dams will have
unintended impacts. Kenya is currently undergoing efforts to build hydroelectric dams along
their rivers to meet demand for electricity and water from their increasing population. While
being able to provide reliable electricity and safe drinking water is essential for a 21st Century
economy, the construction of dams can be severely damage ecosystems associated with the
river and can affect economic activities that are reliant on the river system. The reservoirs that
form as a result of building a dam destroy upstream habitats and change the entire flow regime
of the river, which results in ecological degradation and loss of biological diversity. Perhaps the
most ecologically and economically damaging impact of dam construction is the loss of benefits
from seasonal flooding. Seasonal flooding facilitates the exchange of materials, nutrients, and
organisms among different habitats throughout the system. This exchange determines the
level of biological productivity and diversity. Dams trap sediment and nutrients in reservoirs
and prevent them from going downstream. They also act as a barrier to organisms that move
throughout the river system. Activities such as flood recession agriculture, livestock
management, and fishery production are reliant on this cycle of seasonal flooding and exchange
of materials, and changing the amount of flow and seasonal timing of flows can hinder these
economically crucial activities (Maingi and Marsh, 2002).
Road Building
While building a network of reliable roads is essential for any nation, it can also have
some unintended consequences. Part of the EAC’s plan is to build a system of roads for the
public to use, as well as to facilitate trade and to support a growing logging industry, primarily
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in Tanzania. Transportation is one of the largest costs in the logging industry, and having a
strong network of roads is vital for the business to be profitable. New roads will open up areas
that were previously isolated from human activities for further agricultural development (Wilkie
et al, 2000).
Despite an area’s road density being closely linked with market accessibility and
economic growth, it is also associated with deforestation, erosion, habitat fragmentation, and
the disappearance of wild land and wildlife. In order to develop new agricultural areas and a
logging industry, many trees will need to be cut down in order to make new fields for
cultivation and to build roads to areas for logging. The loss of trees will result in increased
erosion of the soil and will isolate and disrupt habitats, resulting in a loss of biodiversity in the
area. This is vital for the EAC to consider as they are trying to develop a tourism industry based
on their unique animal and plant species. The presence of new roads will also facilitate illegal
activities such as squatting, unauthorized farming, and poaching (Wilkie, 2000). These roadbuilding efforts must be met with sound environmental assessment and planning in order to
minimize these undesirable environmental impacts.
Climate Change
Understanding the EAC’s influence on climate change will be paramount for their
federation to be sustained. The climate in the region is currently conducive to high agricultural
output, but the unpredictability of climate change could disrupt these activities. For example,
the drought the region experienced in 2009 helped cause Uganda’s annual GDP to drop by
more than 60% in one year (4th Development Strategy, 2011). Considering the importance of
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agriculture in the EAC’s economy and the amount of subsistence agriculture that takes place,
changing environmental conditions could prove to be disastrous.
Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria would be described as
an international water body. The lake’s
shoreline is divided amongst Uganda,
Tanzania, and Kenya, who each possess 43%,
51%, and 6% of its shoreline, respectively.
Named after Queen Victoria during a British expedition to discover the source of the Nile River
in 1858, it is the largest lake in Africa and the second largest lake in the world by surface area
(World Atlas, 2014).
The lake directly supports a population of about 30 million people, and this population is
expected to double in the next 20 years. It is primarily used for drinking water, recreation,
tourism, transportation, waste disposal, and as a fishery. Over the past 40 years the increasing
population and increased economic activity in the area has created numerous environmental
issues that must be addressed by the EAC if they hope to continue benefitting from the lake.
Unsustainable fisheries, developments in agro-industry, deforestation and untreated waste
threaten to disrupt the system to a point where Lake Victoria cannot be used. The transboundary nature of Lake Victoria has made previous efforts to regulate activities in and around
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the lake difficult, but through forming the EAC they hope to be able to successfully regulate the
lake under one governing body (Odada et al, 2004).
Unsustainable fisheries
Due to lax monitoring and enforcement of legislation, fishermen have been allowed
unrestricted access to Lake Victoria. The growing export market and the recent establishment
of fish processing factories have increased the demand for fish. As a result, the amount of
fisherman and boats on Lake Victoria doubled from 1994 to 2004, and the amount of fish
caught was reduced by half. Illegal fishing practices, such has using nets with smaller mesh size,
cast nets, fish poisons, and weirs have greatly increased fishing efficiency on the lake. This
increased efficiency has increased the amount of immature fish that are caught, which will not
be allowed to grow to their mature stage and support the next generation (Odada et al, 2004).
Alien species introduction to Lake Victoria has completely altered the ecosystems and
biodiversity of the lake, but have stimulated the growth of the region’s fishing industry. The
three primary commercial fish species are Nile Perch (Lates niloticus), Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus), and Silver Cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea). The Silver Cyprinid is the only native fish
species that is still used as a fishery fish (Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization, 2014). Before the
introduction of Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia in the 1950’s, Lake Victoria contained more than 500
endemic fish species, primarily native cichlids. Once introduced, the Nile Perch consumed the
cichlids at an alarming rate, and the Nile Tilapia began hybridizing with the native species. This
species introduction has driven several hundred cichlid species to near or total extinction.
24
Odada et al (2004) described this as “single most dramatic event of vertebrate species
extinction attributable to specific human activities.”
However, despite this destruction of native ecosystems, this action has been
economically beneficial for the region. The increased demand for fish has resulted in increased
fishing efforts, efficiency, processing, and trade. In the 1990’s, the exportation of Nile Perch
from Lake Victoria reached about US $300 million annually. Sport fishing as a result of species
introduction has created further opportunity to develop tourism as well. While the
introduction of Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia has been disastrous for native species, Lake Victoria’s
aquatic ecosystems have been described as moving towards a new equilibrium (Ben-Yami,
1996).
The introduction of fish species has been economically beneficial for the region in the
short-term, but unsustainable fishing practices will put strain on Nile Perch and Tilapia
populations, and the fishing industry will suffer as a result. The lack of enforcement of
regulations that are already in place has allowed fisherman to catch as many fish as they are
able with no restrictions. In order to make fishing activities sustainable, the EAC must establish
its authority over the lake and form proper regulations, such as fishing quotas, and enforce
them. The EAC must also educate the fishermen about their unsustainable fishing practices and
how they can still make a living while following these regulations. They are mainly concerned
with being able to provide for themselves and their families, and for many that means catching
as many fish as they can to sell. They do not realize that what they are doing is unsustainable.
The fishermen could understandably view the EAC’s restrictions on fishing as overreaching and
as threats to their livelihoods. Many fishermen use illegal gear, and many would not be able to
25
afford completely new legal gear. With improved enforcement of regulations, these fishermen
would not be allowed to fish on Lake Victoria, essentially taking their livelihood away from
them (Odada et al, 2004). The EAC must enact policies that ensure fishing activities are
sustainable for the future, while also educating the fishermen about the dwindling fish
populations and providing incentives to promote compliance.
The EAC has created the Lake Victoria Development Program in order to establish
regulatory authority over Lake Victoria. This program has established agencies such as the
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources in Kenya, the Ministry of Water and Livestock
Development in Tanzania, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Uganda. These agencies will be
primarily concerned with environmental and natural resource management, with an emphasis
on updating legislation, improving enforcement, educating stakeholders of the lake, and
grounding their decisions in scientific fact (Odada et al, 2004).
There are many policy options the EAC could adopt in order to make fishing in Lake
Victoria sustainable. Imposing fishing quotas and size restrictions will help stabilize the fish
populations by reducing the amount of immature fish caught. Allowing fish to grow to
reproduction age will stabilize the fish’s age distribution, meaning there will be fewer
fluctuations in the amount of fish caught and will help stabilize the supply for sustainable use in
the future. Imposing processing quotas will also reduce the amount of fish caught and will help
the EAC control the amount of fish entering domestic and international markets. Providing
fishermen with credit to purchase legal fishing gear would help encourage them to comply with
these regulations. Considering their illegal gear will be taken away, it will help prevent
fishermen from losing their livelihood while also serving to facilitate a transition to fishing
26
activity that is approved by the EAC. However, without proper enforcement, regulations are
meaningless. The international nature of the lake has hindered previous efforts, as varying
regulations and standards reduced each nation’s regulatory power. Creating a single set of
regulations and standards under one international government will help focus efforts to
improve the lake’s fishing industry.
Pollution
Lake Victoria’s water quality has diminished severely due to unrestricted activities in its
watershed. There are no sewers in rural areas around the lake, and as a result untreated
sewage and runoff enters the lake via its tributaries. Increased agricultural activity,
deforestation, and industries such as paper production, beer brewing, tanning, fish processing,
and abattoirs have increased the amount of sediment, pesticides, and waste byproducts that
are entering Lake Victoria (Odada et al, 2004).
Considering the lake is a source of drinking water for about 30 million people, the
unrestricted flow of human waste, sediment, and byproducts of industrial activity pose serious
health issues. The amount of runoff, sediment, fertilizer, and pesticides increases during
flooding season, as agriculture in the region is based on the seasonal flooding of the rivers. The
activities associated with agricultural activity such as pesticide application, fertilization, and soil
cultivation will cause increased amounts of sediment, pesticides, and nutrients to be carried by
flooding rivers to Lake Victoria. The transition from small-scale to large-scale agriculture in the
watershed has further exacerbated this issue. This drop in water quality has resulted in
numerous health issues. For example, in 1997 Kenya experienced an outbreak of cholera.
27
Transmission of cholera mainly occurs due to the presence of fecal matter in the drinking water
supply. About 14,275 people were diagnosed with cholera and 547 deaths were reported as a
result or poor water quality (Odada et al, 2004).
The increased amount of sediment and nutrients, primarily Nitrogen and Phosphorus,
accelerates the lake’s natural process of eutrophication. The influx and accumulation of
excessive levels of nutrients in aquatic systems reduces visibility in the water and promotes
plant and algae growth. Increased algae levels result in algal blooms, and when they die
dissolved oxygen levels drop drastically as it decomposes. The reduced visibility makes it more
difficult for aquatic species that rely on sight to find food, but, more importantly, reduced levels
of dissolved oxygen make it difficult for most aquatic species to survive (Bartram et al, 1999). If
sedimentation and nutrient loading is allowed to go unchecked, algal blooms will reach a point
where Lake Victoria cannot be a drinking water supply and its economically vital fish will not be
able to survive.
Human activity in Lake Victoria’s watershed has put their drinking water and fish stock
at serious risk. Agricultural and industrial developments have not been met with the proper
infrastructure developments, and the obsolete technology that is already in place cannot meet
the demand of an increasing population. Due to a lack of enforcement, these industries have
not been held accountable for what they have been releasing into the watershed. The lack of
awareness and education regarding the effects of their activities has also prevented meaningful
change. Like the fishermen on Lake Victoria, farmers and factory workers are concerned with
being able to maximize production in order to provide for themselves and their families and do
not realize that their actions are causing an impact on the environment (Odada et al, 2004).
28
Balancing economic growth with environmental quality is an issue every industrialized
nation has had to address. Strong economic growth will provide income, but if the
environment is sacrificed as a result they will experience serious public health issues if the
proper regulations are not in place or enforced. Also, considering the area’s economy is reliant
on the fishing industry and agriculture, a deteriorating environment will have undesirable
effects on their economic activities.
If the EAC forms the proper policies, they will be able to improve Lake Victoria’s water
quality and public health with minimal reductions on agricultural and industrial activities in the
watershed. Accrediting national water quality laboratories would facilitate the enforcement of
drinking water standards. Effectively enforcing regulations grounded in science will improve
public health and reduce health costs. Under the EAC, programs to establish national analytical
laboratories are already underway. To improve on sewage treatment and infrastructure, the
EAC could involve the private sector. Private environmental and sanitation companies have
proven to be profitable in Dar es Salaam, for example, and providing an essential service to
about 30 million people would be a lucrative business venture that could attract investment
(Odada et al, 2004). Considering the amount of other issues the EAC need to address, allowing
a private company to help improve on public health and sanitation would allow them to focus
their efforts and resources elsewhere. Perhaps one of the most effective ways to improve
public health, resource management, and farming practices is through education and
awareness. Helping the agricultural and processing industries understand how their actions
have undesired consequences and how to mitigate them would reduce the amount of
contaminants from their source. Proper farming practices and resource management would
29
reduce the amount of agricultural runoff while also increasing yield and ensuring that their
activities are sustainable for the future.
Recommendations
If governed properly, the East African Community has the potential to be a resounding
success. Its central location, abundant resources, and strong agricultural output leave the EAC
posed for unprecedented growth. East Africa would serve as a model for other developing
regions that wish to stabilize their economies, improve public health, and attract foreign
investment and business. However, corruption, poor resource management, poor public health
and education, and environmental impacts of development threaten the resources and
opportunities they have. The EAC must form meaningful policies to address these issues, but
must also be met with the proper enforcement efforts if they are to be successful.
Perhaps one of the most important things for the EAC is to focus on is improving their
people’s lives before trying to join the international community. The EAC has lofty goals of
joining the world market and making the proper developments to increase their exports and
attract foreign investment, and while they say in their Development Strategy that they will
conduct efforts to improve public health and environmental quality, the strategy has a much
bigger focus on integration and development. These actions, if not met with the proper
counter-measures, will further exacerbate their public health and environmental issues and will
not provide the benefits they are hoping for in the long-term. Foreign investment and large
development projects are not enough to join the developed world; they must improve the state
of their people to the standards of the developed world if they hope to successfully join it.
30
Sound resource management is also vital for the survivorship of the EAC. 40 years of
mismanagement and lax enforcement have been severely detrimental to the environment, and
many economically crucial activities are at risk. Forming policies to regulate agricultural activity
will ensure it is sustainable and will not cause sediment and agro-chemicals from entering their
water supplies. Proper policies addressing environmental issues in Lake Victoria will improve
their drinking water supply and stabilize their fish stock, which will then serve to improve public
health around the lake.
Underlying all of the challenges the EAC faces is the threat of corruption. Forming
sound policy, building new infrastructure, and attracting investment are meaningless for the
welfare of the EAC if the benefits are not reaching the people. By further stratifying the public,
corruption will undo everything that the EAC is trying to accomplish. The EAC is forming
policies that are meant to stamp out corruption in the government, but if corrupt officials are
the ones forming the anti-corruption policies then the policies will be useless. Forming strong
policy, establishing accountability and a system of checks and balances will prevent officials
from gaining too much power and will ensure the preservation of the EAC.
31
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