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By Peter Ryan 2008 1 Introduction The aim of this little ‘teachers’ book is to help you get started as a tutor…. with the basics. From this, it will be easy to quickly draw up some initial lessons or use just for reference while tutoring online. It is not intended to be exhaustive or even a comprehensive mini grammar. It can be used for conversational English and revision tutoring as part of conversation English. The section on materials is in the form of addressing the students – to facilitate your conversation with them. It is written from a British English point of view – so feel free to alter pages to suit your own style and preferences. … especially, if copying as handouts for your students. It is written in a basic lesson ready style – which may save you some prep time. Contents Material for lessons American versus British English Homonyms, Homophones etc Proverbs, clichés & slang General words, idioms & phrases Polysyllabic & esoteric words Expanding vocabulary Commonly Confused Words Pronunciation clinic Basic Grammar Revision Nouns Pronouns Prepositions Adjectives Adverbs Conjunctions and Interjections The Definite & Indefinite Articles Verbs Short Grammar test Contact me at [email protected] For: Questions If you require prepared lessons for Business English English for Academic Purposes Hotel English Conversational English Recommended site for great books & authors: http://www.readingbooks-4fun.com 2 Table of Contents Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................2 American English versus British English........................................................................................................5 English grammar- odds and ends: Homonyms, homophones, synonyms and antonyms...............................7 What’s a homonym – or how to get confused in English without really trying!............................................7 Homonyms......................................................................................................................................................7 Homophone.....................................................................................................................................................7 Synonym.........................................................................................................................................................7 Antonym.........................................................................................................................................................7 Common Homophones ..................................................................................................................................8 Proverbs, Sayings and so on.............................................................................................................................9 Words, Phrases and Idioms generally used in English ...............................................................................11 Polysyllabic and esoteric words .....................................................................................................................12 Expanding Vocabulary...................................................................................................................................13 Some New Words (note – some of these words have more than one meaning or usage)............................14 Commonly Confused Words .........................................................................................................................17 Pronunciation Clinic.......................................................................................................................................18 Parts of Speech.................................................................................................................................................21 Nouns ........What are Nouns?...........................................................................................................................21 Common and Proper Nouns..........................................................................................................................21 Concrete and Abstract nouns........................................................................................................................21 Let’s take a look at the difference between concrete and abstract nouns.....................................................21 Using Articles to Identify Nouns..................................................................................................................22 Possessive Nouns..........................................................................................................................................22 Nouns as Modifiers.......................................................................................................................................22 I have a “six-year-old” boy - not a “six years old boy”..............................................................................22 Countable and Uncountable Nouns..............................................................................................................23 Pronouns .........................................................................................................................................................25 Subject Pronouns..........................................................................................................................................25 Object Pronouns............................................................................................................................................25 Possessive Pronouns.....................................................................................................................................26 Reflexive Pronouns.......................................................................................................................................26 Pronouns – some rules..................................................................................................................................27 Prepositions......................................................................................................................................................28 Prepositions of Place: at, in, on ....................................................................................................................28 Prepositions of Time: at, in, on, ..................................................................................................................29 Prepositions of Movement and Direction: to, toward, towards, around, through, etc .................................30 3 Adjectives ........................................................................................................................................................31 Comparative Adjectives ..............................................................................................................................31 Superlative Adjectives ................................................................................................................................32 Possessive Adjectives .................................................................................................................................33 Demonstrative Adjectives ...........................................................................................................................34 Interrogative Adjectives ...............................................................................................................................34 Adverbs.............................................................................................................................................................35 Adverbs of Manner ......................................................................................................................................35 Adverbs of Frequency ..................................................................................................................................36 Adverbs of Degree .......................................................................................................................................36 Interrogative Adverbs ..................................................................................................................................36 Conjunctions and Interjections......................................................................................................................37 Conjunctions ................................................................................................................................................37 Coordinating Conjunctions ..........................................................................................................................37 Correlative Conjunctions .............................................................................................................................38 Interjections .................................................................................................................................................38 Definite and Indefinite Articles......................................................................................................................39 The Simple Present Tense ............................................................................................................................42 The Simple Past Tense .................................................................................................................................42 The Simple Future Tense .............................................................................................................................43 The Present Continuous Tense ....................................................................................................................45 The Past Continuous Tense ..........................................................................................................................46 The Future Continuous Tense ......................................................................................................................47 The remaining 6 tenses are:......................................................................................................................48 Short Grammar Test [to guide the teacher – there is no failing!!]............................................................49 4 American English versus British English Many of you will be very familiar with American TV, and perhaps less so with British TV – although you can probably tell the difference with the accents. What sort of English do you want to learn? Is American better – or the British version – which is where English originated from? Question: Should you use British English (where the language originated from) OR American English (a country that has a lot more people speaking English than Britain? What sort of English do you want to learn? Answer: It is your choice – either is correct – just be consistent and use one or the other. There is actually very little difference – some spellings and a few grammar points – the main difference is in pronunciations and accents The same idea or principle applies to other native English speaking countries – Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and so on. Even in England, there are variations in pronunciation from place to place – which can be confusing to a person who visits England or watches British TV – even native speakers like me. Likewise in America – the people in the South sound quite different than a New Yorker for instance. What I recommend is that you don’t try to speak English like an American, or an Englishman. Rather try to learn to speak English correctly and well – with your own accent! After all you are from a country you can be proud of – and in many cases have a history and culture far older than ours in the countries that are native English speakers. In addition, most native English speakers like to hear English spoken with an accent – provided your pronunciation is clear, and the grammar generally correct. Your own accent makes it more interesting to listen to! For example, I like English spoken by the Irish – while English is their native language – to my ear it is spoken with an accent. So be yourself – learn and enjoy English. In written English the few differences between American and British English will not usually concern people you work for or teachers at your university. Some of those differences British English Chemist Lift Bonnet (of a car) Boot (of a car) Windscreen Biscuit Scone American English pharmacist elevator hood trunk windshield cookie biscuit British English Tap Wardrobe Lollies or sweets Torch Flat Jam Jelly American English faucet closet candy flashlight apartment Jelly Jello Moot: In British English it means debatable; worth arguing about. In American English it means ‘null and void’ that is, there is nothing to debate, it’s finished with. Often words ending in ‘ise’ in British English have an ‘ize’ ending in American English Realise / realize; emphasise/emphasize; tyre/tire; Likewise words ending in ‘or’ have an ‘our’ ending in British English Colour/color; flavour/flavor; favourite/favorite; humour/humor 5 Most computers will have the dictionary set for American English – so it will show as an error if you use British English – as mine does as I write this. Ignore or change your dictionary setting. Anecdotes abound about the misunderstandings that arise when foreigners come to the United States thinking that they know the language. •In one anecdote, a young man, in the course of a passionate courtship, tells his American girlfriend, "I'll give you a ring tomorrow." All he meant was that he would call her by telephone. But she understood him to have offered betrothal, and the relationship didn't survive the misunderstanding. •In Britain, one concludes a restaurant meal by asking for the bill, and conceivably paying by cheque; in America, one asks for the check and pays with bills. Try this link – it ‘translates’ British English into American and American into British http://esl.about.com/library/vocabulary/blbritam.htm You can also Google “American English versus British English” and find lots more information e.g. http://hjem.get2net.dk/niels_quist/bruswor.htm 6 English grammar- odds and ends: Homonyms, homophones, synonyms and antonyms What’s a homonym – or how to get confused in English without really trying! “well”; “well”; “well” – the same word repeated 3 times? …… well, not really …. They are spelt and pronounced the same – but have different meanings! Well !” he said. “The well is dry and we can no longer be sure of remaining well enough to travel. •The first ‘well’ is an exclamation; the second ‘well’ refers to underground water and the third ‘well’ refers to good health. Homonyms (and homophones & synonyms) are quite common in English; and it pays to be conscious of them to avoid confusion when listening or writing. Try these: mail/mail; mail – the letter in post; and mail the shirt of armour. Mail/male: mail the letter in the post or the armoured shirt AND male: the masculine gender (these are homophones, though the two ‘mails” remain homonyms also!!!. plane/plane: plane the aeroplane; and plane meaning a flat surface ….. you try plain and plane – a homophone. Homonyms A word spelt like another word (and even pronounced the same) But has a different meaning. e.g. can (tin or container) and can (to be able to do something) Same pronunciation Different meaning Same spelling Homophone A word that is pronounced the same as another word But has a different meaning and spelling e.g. some/sum; stare/stair, fort/fought; made/maid; cent (coin) and scent (smell) and sent (verb: to send) Same pronunciation Different meaning Different spelling Note: They are usually nouns, but some homophones and homonyms can be verbs e.g. Cent (noun) and sent (verb) “The boy sent (verb) a 10 cent (noun) piece to his mother by mail. Usually, homophones are in groups of two (our, hour), but very occasionally they can be in groups of three (to, too, two) or even four. If we take "bear" for an example, we can add another word to the group" “Our bear (the animal) cannot bear (tolerate) being bare (naked) in the winter – this is actually a mix of homophone and homonym! Note: nowadays some grammars make no distinction between homophone and homonym – putting all under the homonym label. It does simplify – but do what you are more comfortable with. Likewise with homonyms – usually in twos, but occasionally in threes as above e.g. well, well, well. “Well !” he said. “The well is dry and we can no longer be sure of remaining well enough to travel. Synonym A word or expression that has the same (or nearly the same) meaning As another word (in the same language) e.g. car/automobile; cut/shear; Different pronunciation Same meaning Different spelling Antonym A word that means the opposite of another meaning [Antonym is the opposite of synonym] e.g. old/young; old/new; far/near; The Japanese language is a language of words and characters. It is spoken very much as it is written with each word standing alone with its own meaning. This is completely opposite of English. English is a language of groupings of words and thoughts. It has a flow and a rhythm, like the Latin based languages 7 Common Homophones This list contains only the most common homophones, using relatively well-known words. These are headwords only. No inflections (such as third person singular "s" or noun plurals) are included. Column 1 air aisle anteeye bare be brake buy cell cent cereal coarse complement dam dear die fir flour for hair heal hear him hole hour idle in knight knot know made mail meat morning none Column 2 heir isle antiI bear bee break by sell scent serial course compliment damn deer dye fur flower four hare heel here hymn whole our idol inn night not no maid male meet mourning nun Column 3 aye bear bye sent fore mail Column 1 oar one pair peace plain poor pray principal profit real right root sail sea seam sight sew shore sole some son stair stationary steal suite tail their to toe waist wait way weak wear well Column 2 or won pear piece plane pour prey principle prophet reel write route sale see seem site so sure soul sum sun stare stationery steel sweet tale there too tow waste weight weigh week where well Column 3 ore pare rite sow sole two whey ware well NB: In a few cases, a third homophone, although possible, has not been included for simplicity. Different varieties and accents of English may produce variations in some of these pronunciations. The homophones listed here are based on British English. Words in red; are homonyms of the word in the first column as well as a homophone to the word in the second column. Remember a homonym has the same spelling and pronunciation, but a different meaning And a homophone has a different spelling, same pronunciation but a different meaning. Except for well which is BOTH a homophone and a homonym. 8 Proverbs, Sayings and so on The following words define the different types of expressions often found in English – in single words or (more often) in phrases. Some of them are almost interchangeable. Usually the meaning is not obvious by the individual words…… which may be confusing!!! Proverb Noun: a short, well-known pithy saying, stating a general truth or piece of advice. (see also adage) e.g. “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” “A stitch in time saves time” “Make hay while the sun shines” All that glitters is not gold. Sayings Noun: a short, pithy, commonly known expression which generally offers advice or wisdom. e.g. “You know the old saying about all work and no play?”…. “all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy” Proverbs are sayings. Pithy Adjective: (of language or style) terse and vigorously expressive: e.g. “his characteristically pithy Comments”…….. meaning his comments were straight to the point and colourful. Adage Noun: a proverb or short statement expressing a general truth. Idiom Noun: a group of words or an expression established by usage as having a meaning which is not obvious from the meaning of the individual words (e. g. “over the moon,” “see the light”). Also: a mode of expression, or style of speech/music/art Idioms are words, phrases or expressions that are not to be taken literally. Your students may know the words “to rain” and they may know what a “dog” and a “cat” are. Those words are quite straightforward, and easy to learn. But do they know what “It’s raining cats and dogs” means? They probably would not be able to guess the meaning. It’s not really raining cats and dogs, is it? It’s raining hard. That’s what makes it an idiom. Our speech is full of idioms that we may not be aware of. Your students all know the value of learning idioms, and they need and want to use them in their English speech. When is the last time you heard of a company that was in the red? Have you ever bitten off more than you can chew? Do you like to go with the flow? More Examples: have a heart-to-heart talk all thumbs feeling blue have cold feet wet behind the ears piece of cake bring home the bacon rub someone the wrong way green with envy be on the ball raining cats and dogs a little birdie told me get up on the wrong side of bed sleep on it two-faced Cliché Noun: something that is true – but has become less effective through over use. It is a phrase, expression, or idea that has been overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty, especially when at some time it was considered distinctively forceful or novel. The term is most likely to be used in a negative context. 9 Aphorisms Noun: a pithy observation which contains a general truth. e.g. “To err is human, to forgive divine” Colloquialisms Noun: a word or phrase that is not formal or literary and is used in ordinary or familiar conversation. Informal colloquialisms can include words (such as "y'all" or "gonna"), phrases (such as "ain't nothin'", "dressed for bear" and "dead as a doornail"), Expressions Noun: a word or phrase, especially an idiomatic one, used to convey an idea: we have an expression, 'You don't get nothing for nothing. ' The old expression ‘curiosity killed the cat’ - too much curiosity can be dangerous! Slang Noun: a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular context or group of people: e.g. grass is slang for marijuana; cool is slang for hot or fashionable or ‘that’s OK’. Swear words are considered slang – not all slang is acceptable in general conversation. Patois is a mixture of slang and normal speech. The Cambridge Dictionary defines slang as “very informal language that is usually spoken rather than written”. Look at the slang in the following conversation: Dan: Hey Reg, what’s up? Reg: Oh, just wondering if you’ll ever get a move on with the housework. Dan: Don’t get huffy – I’ll get around to it in a sec. Reg: I’ve really had it with your procrastination. Slang is common in our daily speech! So as English teachers, should we bring slang into the classroom? Absolutely! As with idioms and phrasal verbs, slang should be introduced even in the beginner classrooms. Imagine if you always give your students a formal greeting like “Good morning, how are you?” and then they hear you say to a native English speaker friend, “Hey, what’s up?” English is oozing with slang. When your students listen to English lyrics in songs or watch English TV, they are being thrown slang, so part of your job as a teacher is to help them both understand and be understood. Introducing slang is part of that. However, keep a few things in mind: 1. Use your discretion with slang. It’s ok to bring some local slang into your classroom for fun, but give them useful English, always! Aussie or Kiwi slang may be fun for a laugh and to help them get a little insight into your culture, but will it help them outside of your classroom? It depends on their motivations for learning. American slang too, for example, can differ greatly depending on socio-economic status and geographical location. Make sure the slang you teach is useful. 2. Always teach “correct”, formal English before introducing the slang. Remember phrasal verbs too. calm down cool off bring up try on put back look like Phrasal verbs are simply phrases which consist of a verb in combination with a preposition or adverb, or both. A lot of slang is formed from them. 10 Words, Phrases and Idioms generally used in English The following is not intended to be a complete list. across the board: means - including everyone or everything e.g. “We will investigate this across the board” – “We will investigate everyone and everything” an arm and a leg: means - very expensive e.g. “On my low salary, to buy a Rolls Royce would cost an arm and a leg.” back to the drawing board: go back to the beginning and start again ball park figure: a rough or approximate figure bang for the buck: value for money. People want their money’s worth – not to be cheated. bear fruit: to produce a result bells and whistles: fancy features that are less important to the basic function bog down: slow to a stop bottom fall out: to fall below an earlier lowest price breathe down someone’s neck: constantly controlling and monitoring budget squeeze/crunch: a situation where there is not enough money in the budget by a long shot: by a big difference, by far by the same token: for the same reason call the shots: be in charge carry the day: win completely close the books: stop taking orders, end a bookkeeping period cut back: use fewer or use less cut one' s losses: do something to stop losing money deliver the goods: succeed in doing well what is expected draw the line: set a limit to what will be done face value: the official worth of something fill the bill: be just what is needed finger in the pie: involved in what is happening, receiving money for something flog a dead horse: an activity which is producing no useful result; a waste of time get a break: get an opportunity or good deal get off the ground: make a successful beginning get to the heart of: find the most important facts or central meaning of something give someone the green light: give permission to go ahead with a project go through the roof: increase a lot (means the price has really risen very high) e.g. “The price of oil and gold have gone through the roof!” grass roots: at the level of ordinary people hard-nosed: very strict, stubborn heads will roll: someone will be punished household name: a very famous person, product or brand in the black: successful or making money Or in the red: losing money, unprofitable in the works: in preparation, being worked on jack up: increase the price of something piece/slice of the action: a share in the activity or the profits of something raw deal: unfair treatment sell like hotcakes: sell very quickly stand one' s ground: maintain and defend one's position stick to one' s guns: defend an action or opinion despite an unfavourable reaction from others streets ahead of: much better than strike while the iron is hot: take advantage of an opportunity take a nosedive: collapse, decrease in value throw cold water on: discourage, forbid throw money at something: try to solve a problem by spending money on it tight spot: a difficult situation to the letter: exactly, with nothing done wrong or left undone wet behind the ears: inexperienced and naive. Recommended: use your translation dictionary and look up the equivalent in your own language to get a better idea of the meanings or equivalent in your country. 11 Polysyllabic and esoteric words Don’t fall for the trap of thinking that ‘big’ or fancy words are preferable to more common words. - there is nothing worse than your reader having to scramble for a dictionary to interpret your writing. You do not need to know or use complex or ‘difficult to understand’ words. Use my example: “polysyllabic” – in the context of this writing I should use a phrase like ‘long words’ or even ‘words of many syllables’. Polysyllabic is not a common or ordinary word for people learning English as a second language. [BTW: Polysyllabic is an adjective: meaning: using or characterized by words of many syllables:] Using words There are many clever and interesting complex words in English that express our thoughts, ideas, and definitions. Some of these words are common, but a lot are rarely used and therefore not usually understood by native English speakers (see samples below). These words are called “big’ or ‘fancy’ words which some people use to make others think they are intelligent or smarter than others. There are valid reasons to use complex words – but in everyday conversation and usual written communication – they will rarely be needed. The aim in all good English is to express yourself clearly and get your point across to your listener/reader. It is not the aim to confuse them with words that they would need a dictionary to interpret for them. Example Which do you understand more easily? This version: “An erudite person would not use esoteric words in English confabulation as they are too abstruse for everyday speech.” “Your writing should always be in pellucid prose.” Or this version: “A learned person would not use obscure words in English conversation as they are little known in every day speech.” “Your writing should always be clear and straight forward.” Actually, erudite, esoteric and abstruse are quite common – but it is still better to not use them unless you are very comfortable with their correct usage and know your listener/reader well. In creative writing (e.g. novels) words like the following can often be found …. But become a bit fatuous if used in everyday speech. Pellucid (adj) Uxorious (adj) Entropic (adj) Elenchus (n) incrassate (adj) esoteric (adj) erudite (adj) Fatuous (adj) translucently clear – easily understood, transparent, clear, crystal clear, excessively fond of one’s wife, and dependent on her. disordered/lacking organisation a logical refutation. Elenctic (adj) thickened in form or consistency. Made thick intended for or likely to be understood by only a small number of people with a specialized knowledge or interest having or showing great knowledge or learning. silly. The above words were in a recent fiction novel I read….. and were in perfect context and usage. Usually, they are best used when you have already used the simpler version. 12 Expanding Vocabulary Some do’s and don’ts when using words in English In formal writing: o Don’t use slang and, only use colloquialisms, if they make your point clearer. o Don’t use SMS style abbreviations – spell out the full word….. can you see my failure at this in the following? o You can be less formal with business emails, but still avoid slang. Be precise and concise Precise adjective: marked by exactness and accuracy of expression or detail; succinct. Also used to emphasise that one is referring to an exact and particular thing; e.g. “at that precise moment the car stopped.” Meaning at that exact moment. Precision noun: the quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate: e.g. “the deal was planned and executed with military precision.” Concise adjective: giving a lot of information clearly and in a few words; brief but comprehensive Contractions: That is: shortening words – this is often done in English and is acceptable; e.g. I’ll (I will); don’t (do not) they’ll (they will) won’t (will not); it’s (it is) NOTE: this is different than SMS style abbreviations. Increase your vocabulary The greater your vocabulary, the more you will be able to make your writing interesting and expressive. Learn synonyms – this will assist you vary your writing by helping you avoid repeating the same word over and over within a paragraph. Synonym A word or expression that has the same (or nearly the same) meaning Different pronunciation As another word (in the same language) Different spelling e.g. car/automobile/vehicle; Same meaning Knowing these can greatly assist your expression and make your English (written or spoken) more interesting ALWAYS note down unfamiliar words when reading – check them out in a dictionary/thesaurus and add them to your vocabulary list. Write them down – so you can review them each day for a week or so – this is a good memory aid. Better still try and put the new word into a sentence. 13 Some New Words (note – some of these words have more than one meaning or usage) Dependent Dependant Independent Grammar syntax Exhausted Syllable Intense Contingent on – relying on something else e.g. relying on drugs Person who relies on others for financial support e.g. children are dependants. Free from outside control; not subject to another’s authority. The whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language Really tired and worn out. Weary. A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants Having extreme or very strong feelings or opinions. Very serious. Conjunction a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause. Interjection Agreeable an abrupt remark, especially as an aside or interruption. an exclamation, especially as a part of speech Quite enjoyable or pleasurable. Ecstatic Cranky Feeling overwhelmingly happy – very, very happy. Irritable, angry, bad tempered or in a bad mood. Adaptation cliché ridden Tale Genre Based upon - when a TV show or movie was created from a book or musical etc something that has been overused and repeated so much that it's lost it's importance a story, often associated with adventure stories category, a special type of film or show Enthusiastic Agreeable Having intense or eager enjoyment, approval or interest in something. Quite enjoyable or pleasurable. Advantageous Aptitude Dynamic Assertive Resolute Relative (1) Relative (2) Relation Conviction Affording advantage; beneficial Quickness in learning and understanding; intelligence Marked by intensity and vigor; forceful Inclined to confident and forceful expression of desires, preferences etc ; self-assured Firm or determined; unwavering A relation – someone connected to a family by blood – e.g. a cousin or niece. dependent on, based on; only in comparison to something else - not absolute The way in which two or more people or things are connected an unshakable belief in something without need for proof or evidence Tenacity Crucial Appeal Condemn deplore deploy expel Grind incite Amend denounce postpone Envious Tending to keep a firm hold of something; clinging or adhering closely; not relinquishing. Decisive or critical. Extremely significant or important Make a serious, urgent, or heartfelt request to call on somebody for help Express complete disapproval of. To say a person or action is very wrong or very bad to feel or express strong condemnation; to express sadness to move forces or weapons into positions for action to force out; to remove from; to send away to reduce to small pieces by crushing to urge or cause an action or emotion, usually something bad or violent to add to or to change (a proposal or law) to accuse of being wrong or evil; to criticize severely to delay action until a later time Very jealous. a feeling of discontented or resentful longing aroused by someone else's possessions, qualities, or luck No energy and/or no feelings. Always negative about things. Always positive about things. Listless Pessimistic Optimistic 14 Relate Investigate Observe Summary Precis Redolent Inured Consequence Result Sequence Simulate Stimulate Intercourse Facile Facility Utility Artificial Genuine Genius Medium Reflection Repetition Present (1) Present (2) Encompass Transform Require Fact Fiction Various Variety Disparate System Gender Sex Culture Integrate Integral Integrity Intrinsic Extrinsic Converge Diverge Discern Resource Curriculum Make or show a connection between (two things); also: tell about Carry out a systematic or formal inquiry to discover and examine the facts Watch (someone or something) carefully and attentively; comply with an obligation; a brief statement or account of the main points of something: a summary or abstract of a text or speech Strongly reminiscent or suggestive of accustom (someone) to something, especially something unpleasant a result or effect a thing that is caused or produced by something else; a consequence or outcome a particular order in which related things follow each other; a set of related events, movements, or items that follow each other in a particular order Imitate the appearance or character of something; pretend, fake Raise levels of physiological or nervous activity in (the body or any biological system) Communication or dealings between individuals or groups Superficial; easy; glib, slick, oversimplified, a natural ability to do or learn something well and easily; a place, amenity, or piece of equipment provided for a particular purpose. the state of being useful, profitable, or beneficial False; imitation; made or produced by human beings rather than occurring naturally, Truly what something is said to be; authentic; real Exceptional intellectual or creative power or other natural ability the middle quality or state between two extremes; a reasonable balance an image seen in a mirror or shiny surface; also thinking, consideration, contemplation the action of repeating something that has already been said or written a thing given to someone as a gift Existing or occurring now Surround and have or hold within Change; make a marked change in the form, nature, appearance of something. Need for a particular purpose; request, order, command, call for a thing that is known or proved to be true Something (e.g. a story) made up; a belief or statement which is false Different from one another; of different kinds or sorts; assorted, mixed; Diversity; the quality or state of being different or diverse Essentially different in kind; not able to be compared an organized scheme or method; methodology; the state of being male or female - the members of one or other sex; sexual activity; also: either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society; Combine (one thing) with another to form a whole; join into; necessary to make a whole complete; essential or fundamental; fundamental, intrinsic, inherent The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles Belonging naturally; essential; inherent Not part of the essential nature of someone or something; coming or operating from outside tend to meet at a point; come together at a certain point separate from another route and go in a different direction: Recognize or find out; distinguish (someone or something) with difficulty by sight or with the other senses a source of help or information (e.g. a library); available assets; personal attributes and capabilities regarded as able to help or sustain one in adverse circumstances The subjects comprising a course of study in a school or college. SYLLABUS 15 “make” expressions Make believe Make money Make a living Make ends meet Make friends with Make sense Make sure Make up your mind Make a fool out of me Make over Make up for Make time Make peace Make away with Make it clear Make good Make it Make the bed Make a difference Make a face Make a point Make do Make up Make or break to imagine to increase the amount of money to work at a job in order to live to survive with the minimum amount to become friends with another person to make something understandable to be positive about something to decide to make someone else embarrassed to change one's physical appearance for the better to apologize for to allow enough time for something to end the fighting to steal something to make something understandable to make something acceptable or right to do something to straighten the blankets on the bed to make something better to change one's facial expressions to make something understandable to use whatever is available to lie about something to make something a success or failure Items that are found in or around the house outside Grass Footpath/sidewalk Trees Car Swings TV antenna Lights Roof Washing machine Chimney TV Chairs Fridge Curtains Radio Carpet Bathroom Pool (do a homonym!) Shower Soap Rake (do a homonym!) Food Shovel BBQ Spade Pot plants Flowers Fan Windows Air conditioner Bookcase Door lock Bed Sausages Stove Wine Trash bin Glasses (do a homonym!) Phone Bushes Paint Hammock Wallpaper Garage Fireplace Heater Items in general Drugstore Pharmacy Grocery store Service Station Restaurant Post Office Police Station Ambulance Helicopter Dentist Doctor Hospital Cinema Theatre Park (do a homonym!) Florist Jeweler Traffic Hotel Pub Club Department store 16 Parliament/Congress Politics Politician Solicitor Barrister Lawyer Bottle shop Liquor store Transmission Exhaust Fried Grilled Baked Soft drink/soda Lollies/candy Vegetable Fruit Meat Bank (do a homonym!) Discount Furniture Sport Commonly Confused Words There, their and they’re To be fair, the common misuse of these words is a result more often of typos and the writer not concentrating, than of confusion of the meanings. But because the pronunciation of them all is the same (homophones!), it’s often difficult for some people to remember which one to use in which situation. there – shows placement I’ve heard that Brisbane has a great little lagoon in the beach, but I’ve never been there. their – possessive form of “them” They took their surfboards along to California. they’re – a contraction for “they are” They’re not staying in the hotel this week. Your and You' re Again, the misuse of these two words often comes not from ignorance, but rather from laziness or not concentrating. Your – a possessive adjective. Don’t forget to call your mother! You’re – a contraction for “You are” You’re not going to join us for lunch? i.e. and e.g. These are Latin abbreviations. Because so few people study Latin anymore, the meanings and proper use of these two abbreviations seem to be getting lost. Let’s clear it up! i.e. is short for the latin term “id est” which means “that is”. You should use i.e. when you want to briefly explain or clarify what you just said or wrote. You must register for our course within two days to qualify for the discount i.e. usually by Wednesday. When you want to give one or more examples of what you are talking about, then use e.g. (“exempli gratia”) I’d love to visit some of the larger cosmopolitan cities in America e.g. Chicago, New York, Los Angeles. These days, many people write eg. and ie. instead of e.g. and i.e. According to grammarians this is becoming acceptable. However, a clear understanding and ability to use them correctly is important! to, too and two Two, everyone knows, is the number 2. There are only two people in that band. Too – can be used in two (2) ways: 1. As an adverb describing an adjective: too hot, too cold, too big, too small She’s too small to go on the roller coaster. 2. Too meaning “also” My sister said she is going to the concert next week, so I think I will go too. 3. To We won’t go into all the uses of “to” here, but if it doesn’t mean “2” or “also”, then you can assume you use “to” (not “two” or “too”). I think I would like to go to Asia to teach English to the businessmen at Mitsubishi. who’s and whose Whose is the possessive form of who (or, occasionally, which). It means "belonging to whom or which." Who' s is a contraction of who is or who has. An apostrophe replaces the missing letters. 17 Pronunciation Clinic Exercises for pronunciation Get your student to run through the alphabet forwards then backwards a few times – gradually increasing speed as they become clearer and more fluent. They will need you to send a copy if you are teaching online. a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Do it backwards and forwards s t u a b f g w v m n L K j r u t R V l r m n d f F G h I J K As we know, some Asian students have difficulty pronouncing R and L – the following should be demonstrated by the teacher – you saying a pair, then the student repeating after you – work through them all, slowly, gradually increasing to normal pace as spoken by you, a native English speaker. It is essential that students ‘ears’ are ‘tuned’ to everyday speech pace and rhythm. Practice ‘R’ and ‘L’ words Rice Lice Lake Rake Right Light Lock Rock Red Led Lie Rye Reed lead Practice ‘V’ words Violent, veer, verge, Victim, Divorce, Learning a new sport requires practising new skills, muscles and techniques. English is the same….so Practice, practice, practice!!!! Also listen and hear spoken English as much as you can. virus van, vertical division, divide Recommendation – teach your students: Aerobics for the mouth Place a toothbrush between your teeth (length ways) and start the exercises – each morning 3-5 times daily for two weeks – you will be well on the way to speaking clearly as you will have given your facial muscles the necessary exercise needed. Teacher note Demonstrate this – with a toothbrush or slim pen or pencil – and get students to say the above and the sentences in the box – repeatedly. Then assign as morning homework! 18 The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog Ask what is special about this sentence? (clue:26) [Answer: the sentence contains all the letters of the alphabet] N.B. It is the international standard for testing English pronunciation (written and oral) Slowly go through the pronunciation word by word e.g. The Quick Repeat each word or a group The quick 2-3 times – gradually Brown increasing. The quick brown Also each to say it singly Fox The quick brown fox Etc Note to the student: “you must clearly pronounce the last letter in each word too.” Demonstrate this - show position of tongue, lips teeth etc (exaggerate) Explain: English uses 69 more muscles in the face than any Asian language – so the student will experience unusual movement of their mouths/faces as they learn English pronunciation. Pronunciation of ‘th’ “the” – the definite article – is often used before nouns in English (e.g. the car, the book) Pronunciation of ‘th’ is important to master so that you can pronounce ‘the’ clearly and also words beginning with the letters ‘th’ Pronouncing words starting with ‘th’ expels air from the mouth if pronounced correctly – hold a piece of paper in front of your mouth as you say it – it should move… thirsty, Thursday, three thousand, thirty However pronouncing the definite article ‘the’ does not!!! – practice this. More Aerobics for the mouth Red Lorry, Yellow Lorry. Repeat each word or sentence 3-5 times each morning for 2/3 weeks – put a toothbrush between your teeth and say the words…gradually increasing pace. Eddie ran from the Indies to the Andes in his undies Six slippery snakes slid silently through the slimy swamp 19 Pronunciation of the letters ‘C’ and ‘G’ The letters ‘c’ and ‘g’ have both hard and soft pronunciations. Hard ‘g’ as in - got, get, garlic, girl, and a soft ‘g’ as in – general, gin, generate, genetic, geometric, German, gerund General Rule: Soft ‘g’ sound when it is followed by a single ‘e’ or an ‘i’ and then by a consonant (except for ‘get’) The Soft ‘g’ is pronounced like a ‘j’ Hard ‘g’ sound when followed by ‘a’, ‘o’, ‘u’ and ‘e’ if it is a double ‘e’ [geezer, geese] and ‘e’ followed by ‘a’ [gear] and or ‘e’ and ‘i’ together [geisha] Hard ‘c’ as in cat, catch, catapult, capture cot, cold, cut, coast. Hard ‘c’ is pronounced like a ‘k’ Soft ‘c’ as in city, certain, cigarette, circle, civil. A soft ‘c’ sounds like a ‘s’ General Rule Soft ‘c’ sound when it is followed by a single ‘e’ or ‘i’ Re-cap the exercises. 20 Parts of Speech Nouns ........What are Nouns? The first part of speech we’ll take a look at is nouns. What are nouns? Nouns are the first words we grasp when learning a new language. They are the key words, the content words, the words you use to make yourself understood as a toddler first learning to speak, or as a tourist traveling abroad with a new language. A noun is a person, a place, a thing, a quality. It answers the question “who” or “what”. For example: Who is talking? o A child o The parrot o The actor What is your favourite subject? o Science o Mathematics o History What do you want most in life? o Happiness o Wealth o Success Those are all nouns! Common and Proper Nouns Most nouns are common. This means we don’t capitalise them. That is, we don’t use upper case for the first letter But some nouns are proper nouns. A proper noun is the name we use for people, organisations, places, etc. We capitalise these (use upper case). o o o o o Names of people John, Mr. Miyagi, Dr. Phillips, etc. Names of places Cairns, New Zealand, Europe, etc. Names of organisations or companies Ford, McDonald’s, Sony, etc. Months, days of the week January, Monday, etc. Books, films War and Peace, Star Trek, etc. Concrete and Abstract nouns Let’s take a look at the difference between concrete and abstract nouns. Concrete nouns name things that can actually be sensed. These are some examples: o We see a squirrel. o We taste the chilli. o We hear a song. o We smell the aroma. o We feel a shiver. Abstract nouns refer to qualities not directly sensed, like: o freedom o success o pride o envy o intelligence o happiness o sadness 21 Using Articles to Identify Nouns "The" is a definite article. It defines the noun. If the word "the" can be used right before the word, then it's a noun. "That is the _____________." Try it with these words: sky, strategy, over, car, anger. "The" is called a determiner, or indicator, of a noun. It is a grammatical signpost to alert you that a noun will follow. HOWEVER, while the word "the" should always make sense in front of a noun, it is not always necessary. Consider these examples: Kittens are cute. The kittens are cute. Both are grammatically correct, but the word “the” is not used both times. Here are two more articles: "a" and "an". These are indefinite articles. A tree provides shade. An apple is a healthy treat. An indefinite article also helps you determine whether the word is a noun, but it is less defined than “the”. For example: I want to buy a house. (not a particular house, but any house) I want to buy the house on Peel St. (a specific, or definite, house) Possessive Nouns Possessive nouns answer the question “Whose?” and tells us who or what owns something. If a noun is singular, just add an apostrophe and an “s”. Jason _ Jason’s bag Kylie _ Kylie’s sister the dog _ the dog’s toy If the noun is plural and ends in an “s”, just add an apostrophe the ladies _ the ladies’ room the countries _ the countries’ citizens my sisters _ my sisters’ families If the noun is plural and does not end in an “s”, add an apostrophe and an “s” her children _ her children’s books the people _ the people’s rights the sheep _ the sheep’s owners Nouns as Modifiers When nouns are used as adjectives, (to modify another noun), they are used in their singular form. For example, We say “vegetable soup” not “vegetables soup”. We say “office building” not “offices building”. The word “office” modifies the word “building”. One very common mistake students make is when they are using numbers as an adjective, or modifier. Check out these examples: We took a “five-day course”. _ not a “five days course” It had a “two-hour test”. _ not a “two hours test” I have a “six-year-old” boy - not a “six years old boy” 22 Countable and Uncountable Nouns Countable nouns are things we can count. For example: o pens (Can we count pens? Sure! “One pen… two pens… three pens…”) o apples o fingers o cups o chairs o computers What about these nouns. Do you think these are countable? -houses (Can we count houses? Again, yes! “One house… two houses… three houses…”) -feet – This one’s a bit tricky because the plural form is not regular like the others. It doesn’t just have an “s” added to “foot”. But still, you can count feet. “One foot, two feet, three feet, etc.” So it’s countable. -people – Tricky, again. But definitely countable. Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts, etc. that we cannot count as individual elements. For example, we can’t count milk. (We can’t say “one milk, two milks, three milks, etc.”) There are many types of uncountable nouns: o Fluids – water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, petrol, blood, etc. o Solids – ice, cheese, meat, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool, etc. o Gases – steam, air, oxygen, smoke, pollution o Particles – rice, sand, corn, dirt, flour, grass, hair, salt, sand, etc. o Abstract nouns such as: love, courage, education, information, sleep, truth, energy, etc. o Fields of study: chemistry, engineering, anthropology, sociology, etc. o Natural phenomena: weather, dew, fog, hail, heat, humidity, lightening, gravity, etc. Note: There are some words which are categorised as uncountable nouns, but, may be used colloquially as countable, for example sugar. "How many sugars would like in your coffee?" "One, thanks." So let’s compare how we use countable and uncountable nouns. It comes very naturally for you – you know exactly what sounds right – but when you are introducing countable/uncountable to your students, it will help to give them some patterns to follow. In some languages all nouns are countable and in others all are uncountable, so as with every grammar point, we need to make this as clear as possible for them (and for you!) Countable Nouns You can use “a” and “an” and numbers in front of the noun. Uncountable nouns Never use “a” or “an” or numbers in front of the noun. Never use “a” or “an” or numbers in front of the noun. an apple / three apples a person / ten people You can use “the” in front of the noun. -the computer -the family -the people weather information luggage You can use “the” in front of the noun. -the porridge -the music 23 Here are some other differences between countable and uncountable nouns. General Form Question Form Negative Form Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Use “many” or “a few” -many papers -a few children Use “a lot” or “some” or “a little” -a lot of time -some sugar -a little information Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Use “How many” as the question form. -How many TVs do you have? -How many cars are there? Use “How much” as the question form. -How much milk would you like? How much power does this car have? Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Use “not many” in the negative form Q. How many apples do you have? A. Not many. Use “not much” in the negative form. Q. How much juice do you have? A. Not much. I don’t have much juice. _ We use quantifiers or expressions of quantity all the time when talking about uncountables. You can’t say “three flours” but you can say “three cups of flour”. So how else might you measure –or “count” – flour? -a cup of flour -half a cup of flour -a bag of flour -a handful of flour How about “counting” beef? -a kilo of beef -a side of beef -a dish of beef These are called quantifiers, and we use them all the time when using uncountables. Sometimes the same noun can be used in a countable and uncountable form, and usually the meaning changes. For example: Noise Countable - We heard several loud noises last night! Uncountable -There is a lot of noise to get used to here. Hair Countable -I had a hair in my soup! Uncountable -You have such lovely thick hair! Work Countable -That was one of his best works. Uncountable -I’m so happy to have some time off work! There are more. Can you think of both an uncountable and a countable form for the words “room” and “time”? 24 Pronouns Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns arewords like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like: Is that your mum’s car? I like your mum’s taste in cars. Your mum is cool. But with pronouns, we can say: Is that your mum’s car? I like her taste in cars. She’s cool. Pronouns make sentences lighter and less repetitive. Let’s look at some different types of pronouns. Subject Pronouns Subject pronouns show us that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subject is the person or thing doing the action. Subject pronouns go before the verb. These are the subject pronouns: I You He She It We You They I drink coffee every day. You look great in that dress! He doesn’t usually arrive at work this late. She is not here today. It is in the parking lot under the big maple tree. We will meet you tomorrow morning at church. You are always welcome to come for dinner! They moved to our neighbourhood over a year ago. A subject pronoun doesn’t have to always be at the start of the sentence: Later in the afternoon, they will drop off their daughter. Even though it was raining, we went to the outdoor concert. Are you going to the baseball game tomorrow? Object Pronouns While subject pronouns do the action, object pronouns receive the action of a verb. These are the object pronouns: Me He gave me the money last night. (Me is the object of the verb gave.) You I heard you play the piano at your recital. (You is the object of the verb heard.) Her The doctor gave her some stronger medicine. (Her is the object of the verb ___?___ ) Him I have known him since I moved to Auckland. (Him is the object of the verb ___?___ ) It Perhaps you can put it next to the newspaper. (It is the object of the verb ___?___ ) Us My mum always wakes us in the morning. (Us is the object of the verb ___?___ ) Them She told them to go to sleep. (Them is the object of the verb ___?___ ) 25 Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns show us who or what owns something. The following are possessive pronouns: Mine Yours His Hers Ours Theirs Possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives can be easily mistaken for the other. Adjectives like my, her, and their describe a noun. My car. His suitcase. Their house. We’ll take a closer look at those in the next unit. But possessive pronouns are not followed by nouns – they stand alone. They answer the question, “whose?” The green tennis shoes are mine. I think the piece of pie in the fridge is yours. The car next to the house is his. My TV is not as new as hers. Don’t forget that the lawn chairs in the garage are ours. I can’t believe that all those kids are theirs! A possessive pronoun can also begin a sentence: Hers are over there on the counter. Ours aren’t so healthy these days. Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns are used to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. Here they are: Myself I asked myself why I had been so rude to the customer at the cake-shop. Yourself You can teach yourself Spanish if you are self-disciplined. Himself He has to give himself the right kind of medication. Itself The remote control can’t move itself! Where did you put it? Ourselves We laughed at ourselves after the stupid mistake we made. Yourselves I wanted to help you with the assignment, but you’ll have to do it yourselves. Themselves Jason and Chris made that website by themselves. So there we go! Four types of pronouns and their meanings and use are actually quite clear from the name: Subject Pronouns – “do” the action Object Pronouns – “receive” the action Possessive Pronouns – answer the question “whose?” There are more types of pronouns, and more ways to use them, but we have covered the ones you will be using most commonly. Familiarise yourself with them so that you are able to model them correctly! 26 Pronouns – some rules They're vs. There vs. Their They're is the contracted form of They are. This form is used in sentences using "they" as the subject of the sentence with the verb "to be" used as either the helping verb (e.g. They're going ..., They're playing ...) or the principal verb of the sentence. Examples: They're working hard this week. (meaning: they are working very hard this week) They're very interested in helping out. There is used as an introductory subject is sentences with "There is" and "There are". Examples: There are many people in that room. Note: It is also used as an adverb of place meaning "in that place". That's my house over there. (‘There’ as an adverb of place) Their is the possessive pronoun form. This form is used to express that "they" have a specific quality, or that something belongs to "them". Examples: Their house is in Los Angeles. He liked their looks! Too vs. Two vs. To Too means "also" and is generally used at the end of a sentence. "Too" also indicates too much of a particular quality. Examples: That car is too expensive for me! I'd love to come to the party, too. Two is the written form of the number 2. Examples: There are two applicants for the job. She has two cats. To is generally used as a preposition. It is also used as part of the infinitive form of verbs. Examples: I gave the book to him. The verb "to understand" is irregular. Effect vs. Affect * Effect is usually a noun meaning "result." Example: The effect of increased traffic to your website is directly related to the number of articles you produce for syndication. * Affect is usually a verb meaning "to influence." Example: I hope this training series will affect you in a positive way. 27 Prepositions Just like the other parts of speech we’ve done so far, prepositions are very useful and common. In English, most grammar rules can be broken. Almost all rules have exceptions. But guess what? Here is a rule that has no exceptions: A preposition is never followed by a verb – always a noun. By nouns we mean any of the following: Noun table, car, love Proper noun Argentina, Victoria Pronoun me, you, him Noun group the big cat, my first love Gerund swimming, watching, etc. (A gerund looks like a verb but acts like a noun. Don’t worry – you haven’t learnt that yet but you will!) Prepositions are words like: In On At Over Beyond Under Next to We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We can put a sign on the door or at the door. We sleep in bed, on the couch, at a friend’s house. The party is in December, on a Sunday, at 3pm. Woahhh… a bit confusing? Let’s see if we can make things a bit clearer, and divide things up a bit. Prepositions of Place: at, in, on Generally, this is how we use these prepositions: at for a point in for an enclosed space on for a surface for example: at - point At the traffic lights At the exit at the window at the beginning of the book at the end of my street at the bank In – enclosed space In the bedroom In Tokyo in my purse in a supermarket in my CD player in the box 28 On - surface On the table On the rug on the menu on the wall on the page on the ceiling With prepositions, there are also some uses which are standard for native speakers, but for you they may be entirely unclear until you hear them many times. For example: on the left, on the right on radio, on television on my way at Christmas at present at the same time Prepositions of Time: at, in, on, Q. “Waiiiit a minute. Those are the same words! At, in and on! How can they be prepositions of place AND of time?” A. Ahhh, the beauty of English. Generally, this is how we use these prepositions: at - for a precise time in - for months, years, decades and other long periods of time on - for days and dates At – precise (exact) time At 2.00pm At noon At lunchtime At sunset At 10pm At the moment In – for long periods In the winter In 2009 In the 1950’s In December In the dark Ages In the past/future On – for days and dates On Wednesday On your birthday On the weekend On the 10th On Christmas Day On July 5th A very common mistake for ESL students to make is to say phrases such as: In Tuesday morning In Saturday afternoon You may make this mistake because we’ve taught you to say “in the afternoon” and “in the morning”. But because the name of the day comes first, the rule “on Monday” “on Tuesday”, etc. will apply. So, On Tuesday morning On Saturday afternoon Other common mistakes are, for example: Incorrect: Correct: on last Tuesday [I went home on last Tuesday] last Tuesday [I went home last Tuesday] Incorrect: Correct: at every Christmas [I call my mum at every Christmas] every Christmas [I call my mum every Christmas] Incorrect: Correct: in this morning this morning [Let’s go to the market in this morning.] [Let’s go to the market this morning.] The rule? When we use the words: last, every, this and next, we do not use a preposition. 29 Prepositions of Movement and Direction: to, toward, towards, around, through, etc Some prepositions express movement. For example: I will go to the bank on my way to work. The fish slowly swam toward the bait. We’ll have to drive around the lake. In the summer the train goes right through these mountains. To make things even more confusing, we sometimes use no prepositions at all when talking about movement. I went to home. Let’s go to upstairs. Brian went to outside. We’ll go to uptown soon. Rather we should say “I went home” “Let’s go upstairs” “Brian went outside” “We’ll go uptown soon” Even students of the best English teachers struggle with prepositions, and the best remedy for this is practice and time. As you become more exposed to English, you begin to develop an ear for what ‘sounds right’. 30 Adjectives Adjectives – What are they? Adjectives are useful words. Sometimes we call them “modifiers” or ‘describing words’ – they tell us something about the noun or pronoun. When it comes to adjectives, we usually think about common adjectives such as: big small hot cold long short beautiful ugly powerful weak There are many other types of adjectives. Let’s have a look at some: Comparative Adjectives The blue bicycle is bigger than the red bicycle. Superlative Adjectives The yellow car is the biggest. Possessive Adjectives Demonstrative Adjectives That’s my pen! This pencil is red. Interrogative Adjectives Which house is yours? Comparative Adjectives When we compare two things, we use comparative adjectives. •The cat is bigger than the mouse. •The house is bigger than the tree. •My book is bigger than your book. The pattern is important: •bigger •hotter •warmer •faster •easier Once you recognize the pattern it becomes easier! Now, can we say: “My new vacuum cleaner is powerfuller than the old one”? or “John is interestinger than Stan”? Of course not. So when do we use “er”? 31 We use “er” for one-syllable adjectives and those ending in “y”. We use “er” for one-syllable adjectives and those ending in “y”. Big………….. short ………. easy ………. pretty………. bigger shorter easier prettier Adjectives consisting of three or more syllables use “more”: Powerful………………. Interesting……………. Comfortable………….. Amazing ……………… more powerful more interesting more comfortable more amazing Superlative Adjectives Well, we just learnt comparative adjectives are used to compare two things. When we are comparing three or more things, however, we use superlative adjectives. 1…………………2…………….3 or more Big………… bigger…….. the biggest Hot………… hotter……… the hottest e.g. “The math test was the easiest.“ “Those green shoes are the smallest. “ “Today was the hottest day so far this summer.“ When it comes to adjectives with three or more syllables, we follow the same pattern as with comparative adjectives: powerful……… interesting…… comfortable…. amazing…….. more powerful………. more interesting……. more comfortable….. more amazing…….. the most powerful the most interesting the most comfortable the most amazing Remember this is English so there are irregular forms. Here are the two common irregular forms of adjectives: Bad………… Good………. worse………. Better………. the worst the best Adjectives ending in ' y' Sometimes they are thought of as irregular, but really they are not. There is a simple pattern they follow: 'friendly' becomes 'friendlier’ 'bubbly' becomes 'bubblier' 'crazy' becomes 'crazier' The pattern is: the 'y' turns into an 'i'. 32 Possessive Adjectives Some grammar terms are easier to understand than others, simply thanks to their name. So you can guess what a possessive adjective might be? What is a “possessive” type of word that might fit in the blank here? That’s ______ book. Or here? Jack lost _____ wallet. Answer: It’s “my” and “his”! These are possessive adjectives. … they denote ownership/possession. Here they are: my your his her its our their Learning possessive adjectives is not so difficult. There is one tricky part though. Native English speakers have often been confused by this all their lives, actually… WHAT is the difference between “it’s” and “its”? We expect possessives to have apostrophes: My brother’s friend. The doctor’s office. That man’s wife. BUT when it comes to the possessive adjectives, there are NO APOSTROPHES. You can tell that cat really loves its owner. Canada is really proud of its athletes at the winter games. So when do we use “it’s”? We use “it’s” for contractions: It’s a beautiful day. (It is a beautiful day.) I love my new cooking class. I’m so glad it’s held on the weekends! (I’m glad it is held on weekends!) 33 Demonstrative Adjectives Here’s another term whose name helps you determine its meaning. Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which one(s)? That, this, those, and these are called demonstrative adjectives. They are the same as possessive pronouns, which we learnt already, but in this case they act as adjectives. That sofa is old, but this sofa is new. These CDs are the best I have. Those CDs are just some old ones I don’t care about anymore. this --- that --- these --- those “So why is it called an adjective? I thought adjectives were words like “red”, “big”, “hot” and “comfortable”! “ Well, an adjective answers the question “Which one?” A: The cat is under the bed. B: Which cat? A: The black cat. The big cat. The overweight cat. My cat. This cat. That cat. black, big, overweight, my, this, that = all adjectives But be careful! The words that, this, those and these can also act as pronouns! Remember… A pronoun takes the place of a noun. An adjective describes a noun, or answers the question “which one?”. Look at the difference: This vacuum cleaner is noisy….. This answers the question “which one?”, so it is an adjective. This is noisy……………………… This takes the place of the noun so it is a pronoun. Let’s review the adjectives we’ve learnt: bigger, hotter, more comfortable ,etc. biggest, hottest, most comfortable, etc my, his, their, her, etc this, that, these, those, etc comparative adjectives superlative adjectives possessive adjectives demonstrative adjectives Don’t worry if you cannot remember all the names of these …. So long as you can use them correctly. Interrogative Adjectives Interrogative adjectives help to ask about something. What concert do you want to go to? Which singers are the best? Whose book did you borrow? An interrogative adjective is an adjective used to modify a noun or pronoun. In the sentences above, the words what, which and whose are used with the nouns concerts, singers and book respectively. Since these words are used with nouns to ask questions, they are called Interrogative Adjectives. 34 Adverbs What are they? Do you remember learning that adverbs are “ly” words? Okay, maybe you don’t remember, but that is one common definition of adverbs. The truth is, there are all kinds of adverbs. An adverb can modify a verb: Juanita sings beautifully. (How does Juanita sing?) She always drinks coffee in the morning. (How often does she drink coffee?) My friend lives nearby. (Where does your friend live?) Modify means -give more information about An adverb can also modify an adjective She is quite late today. I’m really upset that you said that. An adverb can even modify a whole sentence: Apparently, she had no idea that her mother was in an accident. Obviously you don’t understand. Many adverbs end in “ly”, but not all “ly” words are adverbs! Adverbs: easily, slowly, lightly, angrily (“He spoke angrily”) Not adverbs: friendly, pimply, lively --- they are adjectives because they describe something (“She is a friendly person”) What sort of person – a ‘friendly’ one Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner I walked slowly She walked quickly Adverbs of Frequency I always drink coffee in the morning. He never watches TV during the day. Modifies the verb ‘walked’ Modifies the verbs ‘drink’ and ‘watch’ Adverbs of Degree Interrogative Adverbs I am very happy about the results That dress is too expensive Where do you live? How did you do that? Modifies the adjectives ‘happy’ and ‘expensive’ [e.g. the expensive dress – the ‘too’ expensive dress although we wouldn’t say it that way.] Interrogative = question Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of manner answer the question “how”. Think of the title “manner”, which indeed indicates “how”. How are you talking? I am talking quietly. How is she eating? She is eating noisily. How are they dancing? They are dancing gracefully. Most adverbs of manner end in “ly”. But be careful! There are, as usual, irregulars. That athlete swims well. (not “goodly”). My co-worker types fast. (not” fastly”) Hint: The main thing to remember with irregulars is not to introduce them right away to your students. Make things clear, show patterns as much as possible. After your students understand the regular forms of a new grammar structure, you can introduce the irregulars. 35 Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Frequency answer the question "How often?" I always eat dinner with my husband. We are usually on time for our meetings. She sometimes forgets to call me. Here is a chart commonly used in ESL teaching to help with showing adverbs of frequency: 100% 80% 50% 20% 0% Always Almost always usually Sometimes Seldom almost never Never Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb. Here are some common adverbs of degree: Almost, extremely, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, completely, very I’m not sure if I’m quite ready. I’m almost finished. I’ve hardly begun this exam! Is your new coat big enough? She’s too late – let’s go. That painting is very beautiful! Hint: Your students will have a problem understanding the difference between too and very. It will help them if you explain that too indicates a problem. This house is very big. This house is too big. You know the difference – make sure your students do, too! Interrogative Adverbs Interrogative adverbs ask the questions. when When are you going to the s where Where is her new car? why Why is Tom standing there? how How did she get to the airpo Please note the different ways you can use how With another adverb: How often do you go to the gym? How quickly can she run the 500-metre race? With an adjective: How big is your new swimming pool How heavy is that bag? To ask the question “In what way?” How do you get to work every day? How do I make muffins? With much and many: How much water do you want? How many children do you have? 36 Conjunctions and Interjections Conjunctions Certainly nobody could define “conjunctions” as colourfully as Webster: “Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves.” Conjunctions are JOINERS. Basically, they connect ideas. They allow us to make longer more complex sentences. To help you remember, consider that the word conjunction comes from the base conjoin. Here we introduce two main types of conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions Correlative conjunctions Let’s take a look at the difference: Coordinating Conjunctions These are the most common conjunctions, and they are also some of the most common words in the English language: There are seven, and they can be remembered by using the acronym FANBOYS with the first letters of the words: For And Nor But Or Yet So For And Nor But Or Yet So Carlo decided to act as president, for his father’s absence was taking a toll on the company. We have decided to terminate our contract, for you have clearly not honoured it. She won three awards, for her performance in that film was remarkable. Mark watched TV and waited for his girlfriend to come home. My mum works at the supermarket and my dad is a fruit farmer. Save as much money as you can and you will see great rewards. You should not assume he is ill, nor should you suggest he is insane. Neither men nor women are immune to cancer. I am not a fan of extreme political views – neither conservative nor liberal. I don’t like playing tennis but maybe you can teach me. He never called me from work but that doesn’t mean he wasn’t there. Nobody attended the session but everybody went to the reception. You can go with Daniel to the movies or you can stay at work with the rest of us. I’ll have the coffee or the hot chocolate if you don’t mind. They must really like the heat or they wouldn’t stay in the tropics so long! They wanted to visit us in Melbourne, yet they never left Sydney. I like most sports, yet cycling has never really attracted me. The doctor said Lisa’s x-rays were fine, yet she still is having trouble breathing. The girls will be a bit late today, so please wait until they arrive before you begin. There have been some robberies in our community lately, so we are taking extra precautions. I’ve been sick for almost three days, so I have to work extra hard next week. Hint: Do you notice that some of the conjunctions are so much more common than others? English is such a fluid language. Where “yet” and “nor” were once a much more standard part of English, they now often seem to us to make a sentence weighty and sometimes even stuffy. 37 However, academic and formal English is strongly affected by the use of some of the less casual words, and that applies to conjunctions as well. Be careful about saying to your students, “Oh we never use that word… that’s too formal.” Or “That’s too casual”. It is the temptation of many English teachers to do so, but watch what you say, and don’t turn your students off some words or expressions simply because they are not immediately useful. It’s a fine line – knowing what’s useful and what isn’t. Your ongoing experience will help you decide what is best for your students to be learning. Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs, joining sentence elements that should be grammatically equal. Here are some common correlative conjunctions: as … as neither … nor not only … but also both … and whether … or either … or I’m not as interested in skiing as I am in swimming. She is not as late as Julio. He is neither a leader nor a follower. Neither man nor beast can tame the heart. They are not only very stingy but also extremely unkind. She not only made lunch for me but also dropped me off at my appointment. Both eating lots of vegetables and taking a walk every day will help you stay healthy. I like both photography and travel writing. Whether you leave our company or stay, I will be happy to give you a reference. I’m not sure whether Madonna is still singing or has retired. Oh, I’m sure that the dog will either be barking or jumping around when you arrive. Juanita will be either absent or late. Interjections Interjections are usually one or two-word expressions that often come at the beginning of a sentence or are used alone. They are words like “Oh!” or “Ummm” or “No way!!”. Interjections don’t really have grammatical value but are very common in every language, and usually used more in spoken than written English. Interjections are used to show strong or sudden emotions like surprise, disgust, excitement, thought, happiness, etc. Some common interjections include the following: Yuck! / Oh no! / Umm… / Yahoo! / Wow! / Well… There are many, many more. Can you think of any that you use often? Hint: So would you introduce interjections to your students? Absolutely! At first thought, some English teachers tend to think that interjections are “sloppy English” or not useful. When somebody learning English is able to correctly use English interjections in place of ones in their own language, they immediately sound more natural and comfortable with the language. Interjections are a fabulous little language tool that you can model and bring into the classroom naturally. English learners like to use “Oh my God!” because they hear it in the movies all the time, but why not give them some more colourful interjections to add to their vocabulary? 38 Definite and Indefinite Articles The ‘definite article’ – ‘the’ Articles in English are invariable. That is, they do not change according to the gender or number of the noun they refer to, e.g. the boy, the woman, the children 'The' is used: 1. to refer to something which has already been mentioned. Example: An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose. 2. when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about, even if it has not been mentioned before. Example: 'Where's the bathroom?' 'It's on the first floor.' 3. in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object: Examples: The man who wrote this book is famous. 'Which car did you scratch?' 'The red one. My house is the one with a blue door.' 4. to refer to objects we regard as unique: Examples: the sun, the moon, the world 5. before superlatives and ordinal numbers: [see adjectives) Examples: the highest building, the first page, the last chapter. 6. with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people: Examples: the Japanese, the old (artists) 7. with names of geographical areas and oceans: Examples: the Caribbean, the Sahara, the Atlantic 8. with decades, or groups of years: Example: she grew up in the seventies The “indefinite articles – ‘a’ and ‘an’ Use 'a' with nouns starting with a consonant (letters that are not vowels), 'an' with nouns starting with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) Examples: A boy. An apple. A car. An orange. A house. An opera. NOTE: exceptions Use An before an h mute - an hour, an honour. and use A before u and eu when they sound like 'you': a european, a university, a unit The indefinite article is used: • to refer to something for the first time: An elephant and a mouse fell in love. Would you like a drink? I've finally got a good job. • to refer to a particular member of a group or class Examples: 39 o o o o with names of jobs: John is a doctor. Mary is training to be an engineer. He wants to be a dancer. with nationalities and religions: John is an Englishman. Kate is a Catholic. with musical instruments: Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived. (BUT to describe the activity we say "He plays the violin.") with names of days: I was born on a Thursday • to refer to a kind of, or example of something: the mouse had a tiny nose the elephant had a long trunk it was a very strange car • with singular nouns, after the words 'what' and 'such': What a shame! She's such a beautiful girl. • meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person: I'd like an orange and two lemons please. The burglar took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting. Notice also that we usually say a hundred, a thousand, a million. NOTE: that we use 'one' to add emphasis or to contrast with other numbers: I don't know one person who likes eating elephant meat. We've got six computers but only one printer. Here are the rules for when to use "A, An or The": • a = indefinite article with consonants (when not referring to a specific object, that is: one of a number of the same objects) She has a dog. I work in a factory. • an = indefinite article with vowels (which are: a, e, i, o, u) (when not referring to a specific object, that is: one of a number of the same objects) Can I have an apple? She is an English teacher. • the = definite article (when it is a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know) The car over there is fast. The teacher is very good, isn't he? • The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the". I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms. I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good. •DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States". He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier. They live in northern British Columbia. 40 •But do use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas My country borders on the Pacific Ocean •DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general I like Russian tea. She likes reading books. •DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport He has breakfast at home. I go to university. He comes to work by taxi. EXCEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE There is no article: After the 's possessive case: with names of countries (if His brother's car. singular) Peter's house. Germany is an important economic power. He's just returned from Zimbabwe. (But: I'm visiting the United States next week.) with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands: Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska. She lives near Lake Windermere. Have you visited Long Island? with the names of languages French is spoken in Tahiti. English uses many words of Latin origin. Indonesian is a relatively new language. with professions: Engineering is a useful career. He'll probably go into medicine. with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports: Victoria Station is in the centre of London. Can you direct me to Bond Street? She lives in Florence. They're flying from Heathrow. with the names of meals. Lunch is at midday. Dinner is in the evening. Breakfast is the first meal of the day. with names of shops: I'll get the card at Smith's. Can you go to Boots for me? in some fixed expressions, for example: with people's names (if singular): John's coming to the party. George King is my uncle. (But: we're having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.) with titles and names: Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son. President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. Dr. Watson was Sherlock Holmes' friend. (But: the Queen of England, the Pope.) with years: 1948 was a wonderful year. Do you remember 1995? With uncountable nouns: Rice is the main food in Asia. Milk is often added to tea in England. War is destructive. 41 by car by train by air on foot on holiday on air (in broadcasting) at school at work at University in church in prison in bed Verbs – Simple and Continuous Tenses The Simple Present Tense We use the simple present a lot in our daily speech. This is how we use it: For repeated acts of routine or habit I wash my face every morning. She works at the local video store. It rains almost every day during the rainy season. For facts or general truths The Earth is round. His sister likes camping. Many Europeans speak English. The Simple Past Tense The Simple Past is used to describe an action, an event, or a condition that happened in the past, sometime before NOW. Hint: It’s always good to use key words when teaching grammar. A great key word to use with the simple past tense is “yesterday”. Yesterday I walked to the store. Yesterday my sister played the piano and cooked dinner. Yesterday I watched TV and listened to the radio. See how we are using simple forms? When you introduce new grammar to your students, you need to do the same. The first time your students use any new grammar form, you need to show them clear examples. Keep it simple! What is the regular form of the simple past tense? It’s “ed” endings to the simple forms. I walked. I talked. I cooked. I played. At 8pm last night An hour ago This morning I watched TV I cooked lunch Always teach your students regular forms before throwing in irregular forms. 42 NOW But there are so many irregular, often-used forms of the past tense, and your students need to begin learning these almost right away. Simple present - Every day I eat. Simple past - Yesterday I ate. Simple present - Every day I go to school. Simple past - Yesterday I went to school. Simple present - Every day I sing. Simple past - Yesterday I sang. Hint: Try to avoid teaching forms by just repeating “eat-ate” “sing-sang”, etc. It’s best to use these words in sentences. Get your students using full sentences from day one! “Every day I eat…. Yesterday I ate”, etc. The Simple Future Tense We use the future tense to talk about anything that is going to happen after NOW, any time in the future. Your friend walks in the room with his arms full of heavy books. He says, “Oh no, I think some of these are falling!” Remind students about contractions – I’ll = ‘I will’ etc You run up to him and say: A. “Oh, I’ll help you!” B. “Oh, I’m going to help you.” Which is correct – A or B? Actually, neither is incorrect; both “will” and “going to” are used to talk about the future, often interchangeably. Yet, sometimes the difference in meaning is significant. Which one do you think sounds better? A or B? If you chose A, then you can see why you are needed to teach English – because you know what sounds right and can model it. If you chose B, well… then… !!!! Let’s try another example: Your mother is telling you about her evening plans. A. “First, I will meet Lois for dinner, then we will go to see that new Brad Pitt movie.” B. “First, I’m going to meet Lois for dinner, then we’re going to see that new Brad Pitt movie.” Which do you think sounds better? A or B? If you think B sounds better, you’re among the majority of native English speakers. Somebody who is learning English as a second language would more likely choose A. Let’s take a look at the different uses of future with “will” and “going to”. Your students will ask you what the difference is, so it’s good for you to know how to show them. 43 WILL 1. We use “will” when we are making a promise or commitment. I’ll take you out for your birthday. He said he will do my tax return for me if I’m too busy. The president always says he’ll cut taxes but it never happens! 2. We use “will” when we are stating a spur-of-the-moment decision about the future. Oh, the phone’s ringing – I’ll get it! I’ll walk you to your car. I’ll help you with that. 3. We use “will” when we are making a prediction about the future. I think it will rain tomorrow. My sister will do very well on her exam! The dog will be much happier in his new home. GOING TO We use “going to” when we are stating a plan or intention for the future; something you know for sure will happen. I’m going to eat dinner in a few minutes. He’s going to have a long day. If it rains, I’m going to stay home. Hints: 1. The rules above are not absolute. We often spontaneously use “will” and “going to” interchangeably. Above is a guide to get your students started on knowing how to sound like a native speaker when they talk about the future. 2. It is natural to use contractions like “I’ll” or “We’ll” and even slang like “I’m gonna”. Your students hear you use it and will follow your model. That is fine –BUT- first make sure they are comfortable with the full forms of “I will” and “I am going to”. Now the student/s should be familiar with three of the twelve tenses: Simple Present I eat bread every day. Simple Past I ate bread yesterday. Simple Future I am going to eat bread tomorrow. 44 The Present Continuous Tense The present continuous tense is also sometimes referred to as the present progressive tense. This will probably be the very first tense your students will learn. To help you remember what the continuous tenses are, just imagine an action that is continuing and hasn’t ended yet. With the present continuous, this means the action is happening in the present. Remember we said it’s good to use key words when introducing a new verb tense? With present continuous, this key word is NOW or RIGHT NOW. Look at these examples: (Right now) I’m watching TV. (Right now) Larry is eating lunch. (Right now) my parents are having a vacation in Fiji. Started in The past Will finish in the future Is happening now “I am listening” A present continuous action… -started in the past (maybe a year ago, maybe yesterday, maybe a minute ago) -is happening now -will end sometime in the future (maybe in two years, maybe tomorrow, maybe in 30 seconds) Here are some actions that could have started a few minutes ago and may end just a few minutes from now: I am talking on the telephone. He is listening to music. She is walking to the store. Here are some actions that may have started last week and will end about a week or two from now: They are staying at their friends’ home in Germany. She is writing an essay for her history class. We are waiting for our car to be fixed. A few more? How about these… We are saving money for a new house. I am studying at the University of Southern Queensland. She is travelling around the world. Can you see that present continuous is simply something that started in the past and will end in the future? It’s really simple! English language learners have a tough time knowing when to use present continuous and when to use the simple present. It comes quite naturally to native English speakers. Hint: Sometimes we use the present continuous tense to talk about… the future! Yes, we do it often! Have you ever said something like this: “Tomorrow I’m going to school.” “Next weekend we’re staying home.” Woah… present continuous to talk about the future? Yes! 45 The Past Continuous Tense We just looked at the present continuous tense, which describes an action happening NOW. So then it naturally follows that the past continuous tense describes an action happening at some point in the PAST. Yesterday at 3pm NOW Yesterday at 3pm I was sleeping Was happening at some point in the past Yesterday at 3pm, I was watching TV. Last night at 10:00, we were driving home. Last week at lunch, I think I was eating lunch with my friend. We sometimes use the past continuous with “while”. I was watching TV while my sister was feeding the baby. My friends were partying while I was at home sleeping. The babies were crawling around while their mums were watching them. See the pattern? (continuing action) + while + (continuing action) You try it! Complete these sentences aloud using the same format: She was driving while… I was listening to the radio while… My son and his friends were eating pizza while… We also often use the past continuous with “when”. I was preparing lunch when you called. She was driving to work when the accident happened. I was skiing when I broke my leg. So what’s the difference between using “when” and “while”? Well, compare the two, look at the patterns and see if you can figure it out. What’s the difference between these two? I was preparing lunch while you were calling your friend. I was preparing lunch when you called. While = two continuing actions were happening simultaneously When = one continuing action was occurring when a short complete action occurred. I was walking down the street while my friend was rollerblading next to me. Walking = a continuing action Rollerblading = a continuing action I was walking down the street when the rain started. Walking = a continuing action Started = a short complete action 46 The Future Continuous Tense Okay! If this is the present continuous: I am listening to classical music on my radio. And if this is the past continuous: I was listening to classical music on my radio. Then what do you suppose is the future continuous? Present continuous: I am walking. Past continuous: I was walking. Future continuous: ? NOW Tomorrow at 8pm I will be walking Tomorrow at 8pm Will be happening at some time in the future This is the future continuous form: At 7am, I will be sleeping. Tomorrow night I’ll be studying, so please don’t call. Next weekend we’ll be driving up north with my in-laws. That’s it! Simple isn’t it? Now, not ALL verbs can be used in the present, past or future continuous form. I eat I walk I am eating I am walking Those make sense, right? How about these: I see I love I am seeing I am loving No, we don’t say “I am seeing a car” or “I am loving my mother”, do we? We say, “I see a car” and “I love my mother”. These are verbs we don’t usually use the continuous tenses with: • hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish • believe, imagine, know, mean, realise, recognise, remember, suppose, understand • belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe, own, possess • appear, resemble, seem, • hear, see 47 Here are some more examples: I love pizza. I believe you are right. That depends on the weather It seemed strange. not I am loving pizza. not I am believing you are right. not That is depending on the weather. not It was seeming strange. That’s six of the twelve tenses! Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous While the remaining tenses are used in everyday speech, learning them is for upper intermediate level student and this ‘little’ booklet is not intended to be a complete grammar or for teaching grammar at advanced levels – the first six are included here for they are the first a student will have learnt – and are needed before conversation English can occur. The remaining 6 tenses are: The Present Perfect Tense The Present Perfect tense is a useful tense! The key word that will help you remember the Present Perfect tense is forms of the verb “have”. Actually it’s “have” + the past participle form of a verb. She has finally completed her degree! Korea has become a popular teaching destination. I have started cooking dinner. I have eaten pasta three times this week. The Past Perfect Tense Present perfect tense: I have finished. Past perfect tense I had finished. I had never been to Tokyo before my holiday last winter. Had your parents already divorced when you got married? I had worked at K-Mart for 12 years. (by the time I retired) The Future Perfect Tense A natural progression, really. Present = Have talks about the past in the present Past = Had talks about the past in the past Future = Will have talks about the past in the future I will have worked at K-Mart for 12 years by the time I retire. He will have finished the housework by noon. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense Refers to an action that started in the past and is continuing now or was continuing until very recently. I’ve been waiting for almost an hour! She’s been reading that book all night. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous refers to a continuing action in the past before another time in the past. I wasn’t surprised that Jared was late. He’d been working late for several weeks. I was so tired last weekend because I hadn’t been sleeping well. They had been writing letters for years before they met. The Future Perfect Continuous Tense The Future Perfect Continuous refers to a continuing action in the future before another time in the future. She will have been working for 12 hours by the time I relieve her. I’ll wake him up at 4:00. By then he’ll have been sleeping long enough. Will they have been watching TV when we arrive? 48 Short Grammar Test [to guide me your teacher – there is no failing!!] [a] Which word/s are nouns? House, me, he, going, field, Thailand, pretty, child (underline which ones) [b] Which of these nouns can you count? Peaches, people, toes, rice, truth, girls, information (underline which ones) [c] Is the underlined in the following sentence in present continuous tense’, ‘simple past tense’, or ‘past continuous tense’? (underline which ones) The boy was playing football. [d] Which of the following sentences is true? (1) A pronoun is a doing word (2) A pronoun describes the noun following it (3) A pronoun takes the place of a noun (4) “The” is a pronoun – for example in a sentence like: “The little girl skipped merrily along the path” (5) “He” is a pronoun [e] Are the following words pronouns Mine You It Yourself true/false (delete the incorrect) true/false true/false true/false true/false yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no [f] Choose a preposition for the blank space in the following sentence: The cat sat …… the chair (in, at, on, next to, over) [g] Which of the two sentences following is correct? (1) The elephant is the biggest of all 200 animals in the zoo (2) The elephant is the bigger of all 200 animals in the zoo. correct/incorrect correct/incorrect [h] Does the correct sentence above use the superlative? yes/no [i] In the following sentences the words in bold type) are (1) The movie is quite boring. An adverb of degree? yes/no (2) I usually play football on Saturday: An adverb of frequency? yes/no (3) How are you?: An adverb of manner? yes/no [j] Circle the correct tense for the following sentences (1) I play bingo (2) Thailand is a beautiful country (3) Yesterday, I saw a movie (4) Tomorrow we will study conjunctions (5) I was going to the movies yesterday Answers [a] House, field, Thailand, child [b] rice, truth, information cannot be counted [c] past continuous [d] (1)-false; (2) – false; (3)- true; (4)-false; (5)- true [e] all yes – [a] = possessive [b] = subject [c] = subject [d] = reflexive [f] on or next to [g] (1) – correct; (20 – incorrect [h] yes [i] yes to all [j] [1] – present; [2] – present; [3] – past; [4] – future [5] past continuous 49 past, future, present Future, present, past past, present, future present, future, past past continuous, past simple