Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Three Key Process of Memory (1)How does information get into memory? (2)How is information maintained in memory? (3)How is information pulled back out of memory? encoding (getting information in), storage (maintaining it), and retrieval (getting it out). Three Key Processes in Memory Encoding: Getting Information into Memory The Role of Attention Attention = focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Facilitates encoding, is inherently selective and has been compared to a filter. Divided attention; interferes with encoding undermines memory Undermines performance on other tasks. Multitasking Brain effectively handle only one attention-consuming task at a time Multitasking = switching attention back and forth between tasks. cell phone conversations impair people’s driving performance. texting while driving is substantially more dangerous than phone call (Drews et al., 2009). Levels of Processing structural, phonemic, & semantic encoding represent progressively deeper levels of processing (Craik & Lockhart). Levels-of-processing theory = deeper processing generally results in better recall of information. Levels-of-Processing Theory How To Improve Your Memory Enriching Encoding Elaboration enriches encoding by linking a stimulus to other information. The creation of visual images to represent words can enrich encoding. Source: Microsoft ClipArt Enriching Encoding Dual-coding theory = visual imagery may facilitate memory by providing two memory codes rather than just one. Increasing the motivation to remember at the time of encoding can enhance memory. Storage Maintaining Information in Memory Sensory Memory The sensory store preserves information in its original form, probably for only a fraction of a second. Some theorists view stimulus persistence as more like an echo than a memory. Short-Term Memory Can maintain unrehearsed information for about 1020 seconds. Limited capacity of 4 +- 1 (3-5) Short Term Memory Loss Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” working memory—modular system for temporary storage & manipulation of information Capacity correlates + w/ high level cognitive abilities; such as reading comprehension, complex reasoning & intelligence (Logie, 2011; Unsworth et al., 2014) Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” Long-Term Memory Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that may hold information indefinitely. flashbulb memories = unusually vivid & detailed recollections of momentous events existence of flashbulb memories suggests that LTM storage may be permanent Types of Long-Term Memory Knowledge represented in memory Categories – information is spontaneously organized for storage in memory. conceptual hierarchies – multilevel classification system based on common properties among items. Schemas – organized cluster of knowledge about a particular event or object abstracted from previous experiences w/ event or object. Retrieval Getting Information Out of Memory Using Cues to Aid Retrieval Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon = temporary inability to remember something you know, which feels just out of reach. Represents a failure in retrieval. Memories can be jogged by retrieval cues. Reinstating the Context of an Event Reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate recall. May account for cases in which hypnosis aids recall of previously forgotten information. Reconstructing Memories Memories are not exact replicas of past experiences, as memory is partially reconstructive. Research by Loftus on the misinformation effect shows that information learned after an event can alter one’s memory of the event. Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce inaccuracies into memory. Source Monitoring Source monitoring = process of making attributions about the origins of memories. errors appear to be common & may explain why people sometimes “recall” something that was only verbally suggested to them or why they confuse their sources of information. Forgetting When Memory Lapses Measures of Forgetting Forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall, recognize, or relearn information. Recall = reproduce information on own without any cues Recognize = select previously learned information from an array of options Relearn = to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before Why We Forget Some forgetting, (or pseudoforgetting) is caused by ineffective encoding of information, which is usually due to lack of attention. Theories of Forgetting Concept Description Example Decay theory Gradual fading of memory traces as a function of time Facts you learned in school gradually fade out of memory over time. Interference theory Disruption of memory caused by interference of previously learned material or newly learned material After sitting through your biology lecture, you forget what you learned in chemistry class the hour before. Retrieval theory Failure to access material stored in memory because of encoding failure or lack of retrieval cues. You have difficulty remembering something you know is stored in memory. Motivated forgetting Repression of anxietyprovoking material You cannot remember a traumatic childhood experience. The Repressed Memories Controversy Recent surge of reports of recovered memories of sexual abuse in childhood. Supporters propose note that child abuse is quite common & argue that repression is normal response to it. The Repressed Memories Controversy Skeptics argue that a minority of therapists prod their patients until they inadvertently create the memories of abuse that they are searching for. studies demonstrated that it is not all that difficult to create false memories & that memory is more malleable & less reliable than assumed. Memories recovered spontaneously appear more likely to be authentic than memories recovered in therapy. In Search of the Memory Trace The Physiology of Memory The Anatomy of Memory Retrograde amnesia = a person loses memory for events prior to the amnesia Anterograde amnesia = a person shows memory deficits for events subsequent to the onset of the amnesia. Retrograde versus Anterograde Amnesia The Anatomy of Memory Research suggests that the hippocampus and the broader medial temporal lobe system play a major role in memory. These areas may be crucial to the consolidation of memories. The Neural Circuitry of Memory Thompson’s research = memory traces may consist of localized neural circuits. Kandel’s research = memory traces reflect alterations in neurotransmitter release at specific synapses. Neurogenesis may contribute to the sculpting of neural circuits for memories & provide a mechanism for time-stamping memories. Systems and Types of Memory Declarative versus Procedural Memory Declarative memory = for facts. Nondeclarative memory = for actions, skills, & conditioned responses. Declarative memory depends more on conscious attention, while nondeclarative memory is more automatic. Declarative versus Procedural Memory Declarative memory is more vulnerable to forgetting. Memory for skills doesn’t decline much over long retention intervals. Semantic versus Episodic Memory Episodic memory = temporally dated recollections of personal experiences, much like an autobiography. Semantic memory = general facts, much like an encyclopedia. Prospective versus Retrospective Memory Prospective memory = remembering to perform actions in the future. more common in everyday life than is widely recognized. Retrospective memory = remembering events from the past or previously learned information. Improving Everyday Memory Mnemonic devices = strategies for enhancing memory. Engage in Adequate Rehearsal Studies show taking a test on material increases performance on a subsequent test even more than studying for an equal amount of time. Improving Everyday Memory Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize Interference Evidence indicates that retention tends to be greater after distributed practice than after massed practice The longer the retention interval between studying and testing, the bigger the advantage for distributed practice Improving Everyday Memory Engage in Deep Processing and Organize Information If you expect to remember what you read, you have to fully comprehend its meaning it is useful to make material personally meaningful. When you read your textbooks, try to relate information to your own life and experience Enrich Encoding with Mnemonic Devices Acrostics = phrases (or poems) in which the first letter of each word (or line) functions as a cue to help you recall information to be remembered Rhymes Enrich Encoding with Mnemonic Devices Link method = forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. Method of loci = taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations. Improve Memory Fast & Fun Brain Fitness Exercises Understanding the Fallibility of Eyewitness Accounts Hindsight bias is the tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out. Another flaw is people’s tendency to be overconfident about the reliability of their memories.