Download Chapter 7 ~ Human Memory

Three Key Process of
Memory

 (1)How does information get into memory?
 (2)How is information maintained in memory?
 (3)How is information pulled back out of memory?
 encoding (getting information in), storage
(maintaining it), and retrieval (getting it out).
Three Key Processes in
Memory

Encoding:

Getting Information into Memory
The Role of Attention

 Attention = focusing awareness on a narrowed range
of stimuli or events.
 Facilitates encoding, is inherently selective and has
been compared to a filter.
 Divided attention;
 interferes with encoding
 undermines memory
 Undermines performance on other tasks.
Multitasking

 Brain effectively handle only one attention-consuming
task at a time
 Multitasking = switching attention back and forth
between tasks.
 cell phone conversations impair people’s driving
performance.
 texting while driving is substantially more dangerous than
phone call (Drews et al., 2009).
Levels of Processing

 structural, phonemic, & semantic encoding represent
progressively deeper levels of processing (Craik &
Lockhart).
 Levels-of-processing theory = deeper processing
generally results in better recall of information.
Levels-of-Processing Theory

How To Improve Your
Memory

Enriching Encoding

 Elaboration enriches encoding by linking a stimulus
to other information.
 The creation of visual images to represent words can
enrich encoding.

Source: Microsoft ClipArt
Enriching Encoding

 Dual-coding theory = visual imagery may facilitate
memory by providing two memory codes rather
than just one.
 Increasing the motivation to remember at the time of
encoding can enhance memory.
Storage

Maintaining Information in
Memory
Sensory Memory

 The sensory store preserves information in its
original form, probably for only a fraction of a
second.
 Some theorists view stimulus persistence as more
like an echo than a memory.
Short-Term Memory

 Can maintain unrehearsed information for about 1020 seconds.
 Limited capacity of 4 +- 1 (3-5)
Short Term Memory
Loss

Short-Term Memory as
“Working Memory”

 working memory—modular system for temporary
storage & manipulation of information
 Capacity correlates + w/ high level cognitive abilities;
such as reading comprehension, complex reasoning &
intelligence (Logie, 2011; Unsworth et al., 2014)
Short-Term Memory as
“Working Memory”

Long-Term Memory

 Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store
that may hold information indefinitely.
 flashbulb memories = unusually vivid & detailed
recollections of momentous events
 existence of flashbulb memories suggests that LTM
storage may be permanent
Types of Long-Term Memory
Knowledge represented in memory

 Categories – information is spontaneously organized
for storage in memory.
 conceptual hierarchies – multilevel classification
system based on common properties among items.
 Schemas – organized cluster of knowledge about a
particular event or object abstracted from previous
experiences w/ event or object.
Retrieval

Getting Information Out of
Memory
Using Cues to Aid Retrieval

 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon = temporary
inability to remember something you know, which
feels just out of reach.
 Represents a failure in retrieval.
 Memories can be jogged by retrieval cues.
Reinstating the Context
of an Event

 Reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate
recall.
 May account for cases in which hypnosis aids recall
of previously forgotten information.
Reconstructing Memories

 Memories are not exact replicas of past experiences,
as memory is partially reconstructive.
 Research by Loftus on the misinformation effect
shows that information learned after an event can
alter one’s memory of the event.
 Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce
inaccuracies into memory.
Source Monitoring

 Source monitoring = process of making attributions
about the origins of memories.
 errors appear to be common & may explain why
people sometimes “recall” something that was only
verbally suggested to them or why they confuse their
sources of information.
Forgetting

When Memory Lapses
Measures of Forgetting

 Forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall,
recognize, or relearn information.
 Recall = reproduce information on own without any cues
 Recognize = select previously learned information from an
array of options
 Relearn = to memorize information a second time to
determine how much time or effort is saved by having
learned it before
Why We Forget

 Some forgetting, (or pseudoforgetting) is caused by
ineffective encoding of information, which is usually
due to lack of attention.
Theories of Forgetting
Concept
Description
Example
Decay theory
Gradual fading of memory
traces as a function of time
Facts you learned in school
gradually fade out of memory
over time.
Interference
theory
Disruption of memory caused
by interference of previously
learned material or newly
learned material
After sitting through your
biology lecture, you forget
what you learned in chemistry
class the hour before.
Retrieval
theory
Failure to access material
stored in memory because of
encoding failure or lack of
retrieval cues.
You have difficulty
remembering something you
know is stored in memory.
Motivated
forgetting
Repression of anxietyprovoking material
You cannot remember a
traumatic childhood
experience.
The Repressed
Memories Controversy

 Recent surge of reports of recovered memories of
sexual abuse in childhood.
 Supporters propose note that child abuse is quite
common & argue that repression is normal response
to it.
The Repressed
Memories Controversy

 Skeptics argue that a minority of therapists prod
their patients until they inadvertently create the
memories of abuse that they are searching for.
 studies demonstrated that it is not all that difficult to
create false memories & that memory is more
malleable & less reliable than assumed.
 Memories recovered spontaneously appear more
likely to be authentic than memories recovered in
therapy.
In Search of the
Memory Trace

The Physiology of Memory
The Anatomy of
Memory

 Retrograde amnesia = a person loses memory for
events prior to the amnesia
 Anterograde amnesia = a person shows memory
deficits for events subsequent to the onset of the
amnesia.
Retrograde versus
Anterograde Amnesia

The Anatomy of
Memory

 Research suggests that the hippocampus and the
broader medial temporal lobe system play a major
role in memory.
 These areas may be crucial to the consolidation of
memories.
The Neural Circuitry of
Memory

 Thompson’s research = memory traces may consist
of localized neural circuits.
 Kandel’s research = memory traces reflect alterations
in neurotransmitter release at specific synapses.
 Neurogenesis may contribute to the sculpting of
neural circuits for memories & provide a mechanism
for time-stamping memories.
Systems and Types of
Memory

Declarative versus
Procedural Memory

 Declarative memory = for facts.
 Nondeclarative memory = for actions, skills, &
conditioned responses.
 Declarative memory depends more on conscious
attention, while nondeclarative memory is more
automatic.
Declarative versus
Procedural Memory

 Declarative memory is more vulnerable to forgetting.
 Memory for skills doesn’t decline much over long
retention intervals.
Semantic versus
Episodic Memory

 Episodic memory = temporally dated recollections of
personal experiences, much like an autobiography.
 Semantic memory = general facts, much like an
encyclopedia.
Prospective versus
Retrospective Memory

 Prospective memory = remembering to perform
actions in the future.
 more common in everyday life than is widely
recognized.
 Retrospective memory = remembering events from
the past or previously learned information.
Improving Everyday
Memory

 Mnemonic devices = strategies for enhancing
memory.
 Engage in Adequate Rehearsal
 Studies show taking a test on material increases
performance on a subsequent test even more than
studying for an equal amount of time.
Improving Everyday
Memory

 Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize
Interference
 Evidence indicates that retention tends to be greater
after distributed practice than after massed practice
 The longer the retention interval between studying
and testing, the bigger the advantage for distributed
practice
Improving Everyday
Memory

 Engage in Deep Processing and Organize
Information
 If you expect to remember what you read, you have to
fully comprehend its meaning
 it is useful to make material personally meaningful.
 When you read your textbooks, try to relate
information to your own life and experience
Enrich Encoding with
Mnemonic Devices

 Acrostics = phrases (or poems) in which the first
letter of each word (or line) functions as a cue to help
you recall information to be remembered
 Rhymes
Enrich Encoding with
Mnemonic Devices

 Link method = forming a mental image of items to
be remembered in a way that links them together.
 Method of loci = taking an imaginary walk along a
familiar path where images of items to be
remembered are associated with certain locations.
Improve Memory Fast & Fun Brain Fitness
Exercises

Understanding the Fallibility of
Eyewitness Accounts

 Hindsight bias is the tendency to mold one’s
interpretation of the past to fit how events actually
turned out.
 Another flaw is people’s tendency to be
overconfident about the reliability of their memories.