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hormone: insulin gland: pancreas, in beta-cells of islets of Langerhans target: general, non-target function: to decrease blood glucose feedback loop increased blood glucose b -cells in pancreas insulin released decreased blood glucose glucose converted to glycogen † overstimulation problems: understimulation problems: stress: understimulation may cause diabetes high blood sugar levels receptor: beta-cells of islets of Langerhans message sent: increase insulin production effector: glucose is converted into glycogen, in liver and muscles feedback: decreased blood glucose hormone: glucagon gland: pancreas, in the alpha-cells of the islets of Langerhans target: general, non-target function: to increase blood glucose feedback loop decreased blood glucose a -cells in pancreas glucagon released increased blood glucose glycogen converted to glucose † overstimulation problems: understimulation problems: stress: understimulation may cause hypoglycemia low blood sugar levels receptor: alpha-cells of islets of Langerhans message sent: increase glucagon secretion effector: glycogen is converted to glucose in liver and muscles feedback: increased blood glucose hormone: epinephrine (or adrenalin) gland: adrenal medulla target: general, non-target feedback loop stress hypothalamus function: increases blood sugar (converts glycogen to glucose), heart rate, breathing rate, cell metabolism; dilates blood vessels and the irises of the eyes adrenal medulla body deals with stress overstimulation problems: increase in heart rate, glucose, breathing, metabolism. blood vessels and pupils dilate. understimulation problems: stress: epinephrine released short-term stress or threat receptor: hypothalamus message sent: spinal cord cells stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine effector: adrenal medulla releases epinephrine feedback: body responds to epinephrine, recovers from stress hormone: cortisol gland: adrenal cortex target: general, non-target feedback loop stress hypothalamus function: increases the concentration of amino acids, which are converted to glucose in the liver, or used for protein synthesis to repair cells, converts fats to glucose overstimulation problems: pituitary gland amino acids in blood increase, body repairs cells, fats broken down to help conserve glucose, glucose absorption inhibited understimulation problems: stress: long-term stress receptor: hypothalamus message sent: tells pituitary gland to release ACTH, which signals the adrenal cortex to release cortisol effector: adrenal cortex releases cortisol into bloodstream feedback: body responds to cortisol, recovers from stress cortisol released ACTH released hormone: parathyroid hormone (PTH) gland: parathyroid gland target: kidneys, intestine, bones feedback loop function: increases levels of calcium in blood and decrease phosphate low blood high blood parathyroid gland Ca 2+ Ca 2+ levels † † blood calcium levels rise overstimulation problems: understimulation problems: stress: PTH inhibited intestines if too little calcium and phosphate are absorbed from foods, rickets may develop absorb more Ca 2+ release more Ca 2+ bones kidneys reabsorb more Ca 2+ † decreased calcium levels or increased phosphate levels † † receptor: parathyroid gland message sent: n/a effector: parathyroid releases PTH feedback: PTH stimulates intestines to absorb more calcium, kidneys to reabsorb more calcium and bones to release calcium into the blood hormone: calcitonin gland: thyroid gland target: bone cells feedback loop increased blood calcium blood calcium levels decrease due to increase in calcitonin thyroid gland function: decreases calcium levels in blood by increasing calcium uptake levels in bone cells normal overstimulation problems: understimulation problems: stress: decreased blood calcium increased or decreased blood calcium levels receptor: hypothalamus and pituitary gland message sent: pituitary gland increases or decreases TSH secretion effector: change in TSH levels tells the thyroid to increase or decrease calcitonin secretion feedback: blood calcium levels decrease hypothalamus blood calcium levels increase due to decrease in calcitonin pituitary gland thyroid gland hormone: thyroxin gland: thyroid gland target: general, non-target feedback loop metabolism thyroxin levels decrease thyroid gland too fast function: regulates the metabolism of cells normal overstimulation problems: hyperthyroidism: bulging eyes, increased heart rate, nervousness understimulation problems: TSH still being produced may cause the thyroid to become overstimulated & enlarged stress: hypothalamus pituitary gland metabolism thyroxin levels increase thyroid gland too slow metabolic rate change (too high or low) receptor: hypothalamus and pituitary gland message sent: pituitary gland increases or decreases TSH secretion effector: change in TSH levels tells the thyroid to increase or decrease thyroxin secretion feedback: the change in the level of thyroxin will normalize the metabolic rate of the organism as well as the blood sugar level