Download Ch. 10 S. 2: Patterns of Intergroup Relations

Ch. 10 S. 2: Patterns of
Intergroup Relations
Obj: Distinguish between
discriminations and prejudice; describe
the most common patterns of minoritygroup treatment.
Discrimination and Prejudice
Discrimination and prejudice are common
features of the minority-group experience.
Although the words are often used
interchangeably, discrimination and prejudice
are two separate but related conditions.
Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to
individuals based on their group membership.
By definition, discrimination involves behaviors.
Prejudice is an unsupported generalization
about a category of people. Prejudice refers to
attitudes. In daily conversation, you might say
that you are prejudiced for or against someone
or something. Sociologists generally focus on
negative forms of prejudice.
• Discrimination – can be found either on an
individual level or on a societal level.
Discriminatory acts by individuals range from
name-calling and rudeness to acts of violence.
In their most extreme forms, such acts can lead
to physical harm or even death. For example,
between 1882 and 1970, more than 1,170
African Americans were lynched by white mobs
in the US. In many cases, those lynched had not
committed a crime. Rather, they were attempting
to vote, use the same public facilities as white
Americans, or had become too successful.
Societal discrimination
can appear in one of
two forms-legal
discrimination or
institutionalized
discrimination. Legal
discrimination is
upheld by law.
Institutionalized
discrimination, on
the other hand, is an
outgrowth of the
structure of a society.
Institutionalized discrimination is far more
resistant to change. Over time, unequal
access to the resources of society pushes
some minority groups into less-powerful
positions. Once this occurs, it is not
necessary for the dominant group to
consciously discriminate against these
groups to maintain a system of inequality.
Discrimination thus becomes a part of the
social structure. Therefore, institutional
discrimination is self-perpetuating and can
occur even when the society takes legal
steps to end discriminatory practices.
• Prejudice – negative forms of prejudice
often involve stereotypes. A stereotype is
an oversimplified, exaggerated, or
unfavorable generalization about a group
of people. When stereotyping, an
individual forms an image of a particular
group. For example, a stereotype held by
some Americans was that all Irish people
were hot-tempered. If individuals are found
to differ from the stereotyped group image,
they are thought to be exceptions to the
rule, rather than proof that the stereotype
is wrong.
Stereotyping can have grave consequences
for society. If people are told often enough
and long enough that they or others are
socially, mentally, or physically inferior,
they may come to believe it. It does not
matter whether the accusations are true.
Robert K. Merton suggested that a false
definition of a situation can become a selffulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling
prophecy is a prediction that results in
behavior that makes the prediction come
true.
If members of a minority
group are considered
incapable of
understanding technical
information, they will not
be given technical
training. As a result, they
will lack the skills needed
to gain employment in
highly technical
occupations. This lack of
employment in technical
fields will then be taken
as proof of the group’s
inability to understand
technical information.
For the dominant group in society, prejudice
serves as a justification for discriminatory
actions. Once individuals come to believe
negative claims against members of a minority
group, they may find it easier to accept open
acts of discrimination. Prejudicial beliefs that
serve as justifications for open discrimination
often take the form of racism - the belief that
one’s own race or ethnic group is naturally
superior to other races or ethnic groups.
Throughout history, racism has been used as a
justification for atrocities such as slavery and
genocide.
While prejudice and discrimination are related,
they do not always go hand-in-hand. According
to Merton, individuals can combine
discrimination and prejudice in four possible
ways.
• The active bigot is prejudiced and openly
discriminatory.
• The timid bigot is prejudiced but is afraid to
discriminate because of societal pressures.
• The fair-weather liberal is not prejudiced but
discriminates anyway because of societal
pressure.
• The all-weather liberal is not prejudiced and
does not discriminate.
Sources of Discrimination and
Prejudice
Various explanations
have been offered for
the development of
discrimination and
prejudice. Sociologists
often organize these
explanations into three
broad categories;
sociological,
psychological, and
economic.
• Sociological explanations – most
sociological explanations of discrimination
and prejudice focus on the social
environment. This environment includes
the accepted social norms of society and
the process through which these norms
are learned – socialization. In some
societies, prejudices are embedded in the
social norms. Such norms describe the
ways in which members of the society are
expected to relate to members of certain
out-groups. People become prejudiced
simply by internalizing these norms.
Even if prejudice is not a
part of the culture of
society at large, it may
be a norm of groups
within society. People
often become
prejudiced to maintain
their group
membership. They may
also become
prejudiced through
their identification with
a reference group that
encourages and
supports such
behavior.
• Psychological Explanations – Individual
behavior provides the focus for psychological
explanations of prejudice and discrimination.
One such explanation suggests that people are
prejudiced because they have a particular kind
of personality. In a survey of a broad sample of
American society, a team of psychologists lead
by Theodore Adorno found that prejudiced
people share certain characteristics. These
characteristics made up what Adorno called the
authoritarian personality. Authoritarians are
strongly conformist, have a great respect for
authority, and are highly likely to follow the
orders of those in authority. They also exhibit a
great deal of anger and are likely to blame
others for their problems.
Another psychological explanation suggests
that prejudice may be the product of
frustration and anger. When individuals
have problems but cannot confront the
real causes of those problems, they often
turn their frustration and anger on innocent
groups. The practice of placing the blame
for one’s troubles on an innocent individual
or group is called scapegoating. By
focusing on scapegoats, people
sometimes gain a sense of superiority at a
time when they are feeling powerless.
Minority groups often become scapegoats for a
variety of reasons.
• First, they are easy to recognize because of their
physical feature, language, style of dress, or
religious practices.
• Second, they lack power in society and may be
unlikely to fight back.
• Third, they are often concentrated in one
geographic area and therefore are easily
accessible and an easy target.
• Fourth, they often have been the target of
scapegoating in the past, so a certain amount of
hostility toward them already exists.
• Finally, they often represent something – such
as an idea, attitude, or way of life – that the
scapegoater does not like.
• Economic
Explanations –
According to
economic
explanations,
prejudice and
discrimination arise
out of competition for
scarce resources.
For example, during the second half of the 1800s
large numbers of Chinese workers immigrated to
the West Coast of the US. In the beginning, they
were welcomed as an inexpensive source of
labor. However, when jobs become scarce many
white workers began to view the Chinese
immigrants as economic competitors. Many
white Americans reacted to this competition with
open violence. This discrimination was legalized
with the passage of laws restricting Chinese
immigration.
Conflict theorists suggest that the dominant
group, to protect its position, encourages
competition for resources among minority
groups. This competition creates a split
labor market, in which workers are set
against each other along racial and ethnic
lines. In the struggle for jobs, the various
minority groups come to fear, distrust, and
hate one another.
Patterns of Minority Group
Treatment
Official policies toward
minority groups within
a society vary widely.
The most common
patterns of minority
treatment include
cultural pluralism,
assimilation, legal
protection, segregation,
subjugation, population
transfer and
extermination.
• Cultural Pluralism – One response to ethnic
and racial diversity is cultural pluralism. This
policy allows each group within society to keep
its unique cultural identity. Switzerland provides
an example of cultural pluralism in action.
Switzerland has three official languages –
French, German, and Italian – one language for
each of its three major ethnic groups. These
groups live together peacefully and are
extremely loyal to Switzerland. Furthermore,
none of the groups has taken to a dominant or
minority role in Swiss society.
• Assimilation – In many societies, racial and
ethnic minorities attempt to hold onto some of
their unique cultural features. However, official
policies do not always favor such efforts. For
example, at one time in the US it was hoped that
the various groups that make up American
society could be blended into a single people
with a common culture. This hope formed the
basis of the image of America as a “melting pot.”
the blending of culturally distinct groups into a
single group with a common culture and identity
is called assimilation.
In most societies, some
assimilation occurs
voluntarily. Over
time, the various
groups within society
exchange many
cultural traits as a
natural outcome of
daily interaction. On
the other hand,
attempts to force
assimilation often
lead to conflict.
• Legal Protection – Many countries have
taken legal steps to ensure that the rights
of minority groups are protected. The Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights
Act of 1965 are examples of such
legislation in the US. Affirmative action
programs are another example of legal
efforts to achieve equal rights.
• Segregation – Policies that physically
separate a minority group from the
dominant group are referred to as
segregation. Under segregation, the
minority group is forbidden to live in the
same areas as the dominant group and
cannot use the same public facilities.
Sociologists recognize two types of
segregation. De jure segregation is
based on laws. Segregation based on
informal norms is called de facto
segregation.
• Subjugation – Some
countries engage in
subjugation – the
maintaining of control
over a group through
force. Slavery – the
ownership of one
person by another – is
the most extreme form
of subjugation.
Examples of slavery
can be found
throughout history.
Population Transfer
Sometimes the dominant group in a society
separates itself from a minority group by
transferring the minority population to a new
territory. This policy can be carried out indirectly
or directly. With indirect transfer, the dominant
group makes life for minorities so miserable that
they simply leave. Direct transfer, on the other
hand, involves the use of force. In some cases,
people are forcibly moved to new locations
within the country. An example of direct transfer
in the US is the resettlement of American
Indians on reservations during the 1800s.
Extermination
The most extreme response to the existence of
minority groups within a country is extermination.
When the goal of extermination is the intentional
destruction of the entire targeted population, it is
referred to as genocide. This kind of
extermination has been attempted many times,
and sometimes achieved, throughout history.
In the last years of the 1900s, some dominant
groups have combined population transfer and
extermination in a practice called ethnic
cleansing. This practice involves removing a
group form a particular area through terror,
expulsion, and mass murder.