Download Ritzer, Introduction to Sociology, Second Edition Chapter Summary

Ritzer, Introduction to Sociology, Second Edition
Chapter Summary
Chapter Two Summary
Thinking Sociologically
Sociologists use theories to make sense of social phenomena. These theories help
sociologists to interpret, explain, categorize, and predict social phenomena—sometimes even
using theory to change the world. The most important early sociologists were Auguste Comte,
the inventor of the term sociology; Harriet Martineau; and Herbert Spencer. However, the main
theorists of classical sociology are Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim.
Marx focused the majority of his attention on macro issues, particularly the structure of
capitalist society. Unlike Marx, Weber did not focus exclusively on the economy but considered
the importance of other sociological variables, particularly religion. Émile Durkheim believed
that the control that social structures and cultural norms and values have over individuals is not
only necessary but also desirable.
Three other early sociological theorists are important. Instead of examining macro
structures, Georg Simmel focused on the micro-level issues, or interactions among individuals.
W. E. B. Du Bois was a pioneering researcher of race in America at the turn of the twentieth
century. Thorstein Veblen focused on consumption and particularly the ways the rich show off
their wealth. One way they do this is through conspicuous consumption.
There have been major developments in contemporary sociological theory. One
structural/functional theory is structural-functionalism with its focus on large-scale social
phenomena. Structural-functionalists like Robert Merton are concerned with both social
structures and the functions—and dysfunctions—that such structures perform. In contrast, the
second structural/functional theory, structuralism, is not concerned with functions. It focuses on
the social impact of hidden or underlying structures.
Conflict/critical theories tend to emphasize societal stresses, strains, and conflicts.
Conflict theorists emphasize that society is held together by power and coercion. Feminist theory
critiques the social situation confronting women and offers ideas on how their situation can be
bettered, if not revolutionized. Queer theory addresses the relationship between heterosexuals
and homosexuals but stresses the broader idea that there are no fixed and stable identities that
determine who we are. Critical theories of race and racism argue that race continues to matter.
They also raise the issue of oppression involving the intersection of gender, race, sexual
Ritzer, Introduction to Sociology, Second Edition
Chapter Summary
orientation, and other social statuses. Postmodern theory is similarly critical of society.
Inter/actionist theories deal with micro-level interactions among people and, to a degree,
individual action. Symbolic interactionism, for instance, is concerned with the effect of symbols,
including words, on the interaction of two or more people. Ethnomethodology focuses on what
people do rather than what they think and often analyzes conversations. Exchange theory, similar
to ethnomethodology, is concerned not with what people think but with their behavior itself.
Rational choice theory considers behavior to be based on rational evaluations of goals and the
means to achieve those goals.
Sociological thought on a range of important issues is based on these theories, both
classic and contemporary. In the next chapter, we will investigate the various tools sociologists
use to analyze data and develop theories.