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International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Volume 4 | Issue 1 Article 7 2016 Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions Mehdi Ebadi [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp Part of the Asian Studies Commons, Folklore Commons, Human Geography Commons, and the Tourism and Travel Commons Recommended Citation Ebadi, Mehdi (2016) "Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions," International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage: Vol. 4: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp/vol4/iss1/7 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License © International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage ISSN : 2009-7379 Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp/ Volume 4(i) 2016 Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions Mehdi Ebadi Persika Tours Gerolstein, Germany [email protected] Academic studies, dedicated to various aspects of religiously motivated travel have increased steadily, especially in recent years. Despite the huge amount of publications related to tourism and religious pilgrimage, there is still a gap between abstract theory and empirical research. Studies devoted to pilgrimage in the developing countries generally, and Islamic regions in particular are rather few in number in spite of its socioeconomic importance and widespread practices. The present work tries to address this relative lack of attention and will shed more light on the tradition of shrine pilgrimage (known as ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian cultural milieu that is almost unknown within the wider community of tourism and geography researchers. Key Words: : Religious tourism, Shrine Pilgrimage, Ziyārat, Iran, Central Asia, TurcoIranian cultures, Turkmen Sahra Introduction Tourism is considered to be an activity which, in one form or another, mankind has been engaged in from times immemorial. In the last decade the number of international tourists grew almost exponentially until it reached a historical record of more than one billion in 2012. One of the most important, but rather neglected forms of tourism is religiously motivated travel, also known as ‘religious tourism’ or ‘pilgrimage’. Since the dawn of history, vast numbers of sacred places around the world such as shrines, temples, churches, religious festivals, landscape features, and so on, have attracted pilgrims. Even in our highly mobile and largely secularized modern world, pilgrimage is still a force to be reckoned with. With around 200 to 600 million national and international religious and spiritual journeys taking place every year, pilgrimage is clearly one of the fastest growing forms of tourism (UNWTO, 2011; Rinschede & Bhardwaj, 1988). Numerous cities worldwide have been built and developed thanks to pilgrimage. Among the most well-known examples are Lourdes in France, Mecca in Saudi Arabia, Karbala in Iraq and Mashhad in Iran, whose economies are largely reliant on the huge numbers of pilgrims. In recent years, academic studies, dedicated to various aspects of religiously motivated travel have increased steadily. But there is still a gap between abstract theory and empirical research. Studies devoted to pilgrimage in developing countries generally, and Islamic regions in particular are rather few. Among the areas where ~ 70 ~ Islamic shrine pilgrimage is strongly popular and practiced is the so-called Turco-Iranian cultural region. Literature Review Pilgrimage, or religious motivated travel, plays a great role in the social life of Muslims and is an important part of Islamic fabric. From North Africa, the Middle East to Central, and South / Southeast Asia, shrine pilgrimage is common among Muslims. Numerous Sufi lodgings (khanegahs), shrines, schools, mosques, tombs (mazars), and mausoleums of saints, martyrs, Sufi-masters, and other holy men and women, attract millions of pilgrims, who travel substantial distances to these centers (Barnfoot and Barnesm, 2006; Schimmel, 1980; Din, 1989; Lanquar, 2001 and Van Bruinsessen, 2008). According to Islamic traditions, Muslims are encouraged to travel, not only to bear witness to the greatness of God, but also to gain knowledge, learn about other cultures, and meet pious and wise men. Generally, the ‘religious’ travels among Muslims around the world could be classified into two forms: Mandatory (Hajj) and voluntary (ziyārat). Hajj or pilgrimage to the Ka'ba (‘the house of God’) in Mecca is the most important travel event for Muslims. Each year from the 8th to the 12th day of Dhu al-Hijjah (the last month of the Arabic/Islamic calendar), more than two million pilgrims from every corner of the world come to perform the ritual of Hajj. This pilgrimage to Mecca serves as the model for other forms of Ebadi Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions pilgrimage in the Islamic world.[1] Every Muslim is required to make Hajj at least once in a lifetime, if he or she is physically and financially able. During Hajj a Muslim must perform certain rites and ceremonies, which symbolically represent the experience of Abraham and Hagar (his wife). The second form of pilgrimage in Islam is known as ziyārat (also written as ziarat or ziara)[2] or shrine pilgrimage, which, despite its socio-economic role in traditional societies, has been mostly neglected by tourism scholars. An important distinction should therefore be made between Hajj and ziyārat. The Hajj is considered to be the ‘official’ or ‘normative’ form of Islamic pilgrimage with static rituals, whereas ziyārat is a ‘popular’ (i.e. volkstümlich) or ‘alternative’ form of pilgrimage which is practiced in different forms among people from different cultures. In other words, ziyārat, with its unwritten rules manifests the variegated cultural of Islam in various regions. Writing about this subject Khosronejad states: [Ziyārat] is a multi-dimensional phenomenon influenced by geography and local custom as well as by religious tradition. . . . ziyara, in the Islamic context, are not only pilgrimage but also the culture of devotion, of which pilgrimage and saint veneration is an integral part. Therefore, ziyara did not always refer to making pilgrimages to shrines and tombs or sacred places (Khosronejad, 2012: 13). Muslims in ziyārat visit shrines, mosques, and tombs allied to the Prophet, saints, martyrs, imāms, and other venerated persons (men and women). Bhardwaj (1998), as one of the pioneering researchers on the topic, identifies several common features of the ziyārat, defining it as a ‘non-Hajj pilgrimage’, which expresses the regional Islamic culture of a population especially in non-Arab countries. These voluntary pilgrimages are akin to pilgrimage travel in 1. Moreover, the Hajj to Mecca occupies such a central position that it, along with Profession of faith, fasting during the month of Ramadan, almsgiving, and ritual prayer is considered to be as one of the ‘five pillars’ of Islam. 2. Ziyārat (ziyara) derived from the Arabic word zara which literary means ‘to visit’. 3. Sufism as a ‘popular’ version of Islam; originated in reaction to over-legalistic formulations of Islam and for several centuries, represented a powerful alternative source of power. In Sufism, developing a power inner conviction of faith and a personal religious experience has been stressed (Schadle, 2009; Coleman and Elsner, 1995: 72). Ziyārat, in fact, is born out of popular Sufi practices in Central Asia. ~ 71 ~ Christianity, which people do as a way of getting closer to God, gaining blessings in their lives, and celebrating famous saints from history. Bhardwaj describes the ziyārat as follows: Ziyārat [Sic.] seem to be composed of subsystems that have developed in several cultural contexts, each of which shares the universal characteristics of Islam, but also reflects [the regional] cultural distinctiveness . . . contrary to Hajj, the behavior of the individuals in the ziarat, reflects the cultural context and the individual’s existential quest . . . there are no uniformity prescribed rules. . . . the individual pilgrim in the ziarat follows the rules specific to the place and local culture . . . it is not uncommon to see pilgrims in ziarat singing devotional songs, expressing their frailty, or asking for the intercession of local saint in personal problems (Bhardwaj, 1998: 72 -79). The importance of ziyārat in some Muslim cultures (especially Sufi cults)[3], extends to a level whereby it is seen to be as important as Hajj for many believers. Privratsky (2001) for instance remarks about the importance of pilgrimage to the shrine of Ahmet Yasawi (a popular Sufi Saint) among Kazakhs. Performing pilgrimage to his shrine (which they call ekinshi Mecca which literary means ‘second Mecca’) three times, is equivalent to a single pilgrimage to Mecca. Montgomery (2007: 362-370), who examined the holy mountain in Osh in Kyrgyzstan, similarly reports on the religious rituals and traditions of ziyārat among local visitors who believe that it is only after visiting this Mountain that an individual can be prepared to go to Mecca. They also believe that performing three (to ten) visits to Sulayman Mountain is equivalent to a Hajj to Mecca. Other researchers like 4. Prager reports on shrine pilgrimage (ziyārat) among Alawis in Turkey. She notes: one of the key concepts of the Alawi religion is the idea of a cyclical manifestation of God’s revelation, resulting from the fall of the Light Souls (nurani) beginning with Adam and finding its closure with ‘Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. These cyclical revelations were closely connected to teachings about the reincarnation and transmigration of souls, the latter being essential for the understanding of Alawi ideas and practices surrounding the ziyāra. […] the Alawi differentiate between three types of ziyārāt, namely, the khidr-ziyārāt, nabi-ziyārāt, and shaykhziyārāt. While the first two categories are related to the idea of reincarnation of Lights Souls, the shaykhziyārāt are usually connected with the transmigration of souls, particularly those of gifted/spiritually advanced human beings. Each of these ziyārāt is named after the respective Prophet, saint or shaykh to whom the shrine is dedicated (Prager, 2013:45-48). International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Volume 4(i) 2016 Daneshvari (1986), Hällzon (2009), Lymer (2004), and Prager (2013)[4] have also reported about such perceptions in other parts of the Islamic world as well. directions; these roles acquired a new and special lease of life after the saints’ deaths, when their tombs became the centers of shrines or mazars (Soucek, 2000: 38). Despite the motivations among many Muslims to do ziyārat, pilgrimage to sacred places other than Mecca is a controversial subject in Islamic orthodox contexts, since these practices are not supported by the Quran or hadiths (Timothy and Iverson, 2006; Abramson and Karimov, 2007). Historically speaking, Iran and Central Asia have numerous cultural connections so that nowadays one can observe several similar religious and cultural rituals among the people of Iran and Central Asia. Richard Frye, an American professor of Iranian and Central Asian studies about this matter comments: In spite of the fact that in the early Islamic evidence, unlike other religions like Christianity,[5] there was no evidence of sanctification; nevertheless, nowadays saint-related pilgrimage is a common activity among a large number of Muslims[6]. Soucek in this regards indicates: […] the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them (Frye, 1996: 4). [Although] there was no canonization process . . . Muslim saints were admitted - or believed by the masses - to perform karamat, a concept half -way between miracle and blessing bestowed by God; and in the absence of a canonical counterpart to the Christian saint, there were words like wali (Arabic for wali Allah, ‘he who is close to God’), khwaja, ishon, bābā, atā, or Owliyā (plural of wali often used in Turkic as a singular) which assumed that function. In their lifetime, these saints played . . . catalytic roles in spreading or affirming Islam in all 5. Soucek (2000: 38) indicates: The concept of the canonical ‘saint’ is absent in orthodox Islam, and is only obliquely admitted by its heterodox denominations; thus, none of the three core Islamic languages, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, has a lexical counterpart to the Christian [word] ‘saint’. In a similar discussion, Coleman and Elsner (1995:69) note: Unlike the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation, the divine attributes of God are held to be remote from human nature, so that according to orthodox teaching no person can be closer to God than any other. Mecca and Medina are, ideally, revered not because they represent the birth and dwelling-places of the Prophet, but because they are reminders of the original revelation granted to him. 6. According to some orthodox Sunni Muslims, like Wahhabis, pilgrimage and worshiping the saints is an unIslamic practice and they point out that the prophet Mohammad himself forbade prayers at his grave. Consequently, no shrines have been erected over the graves of the first three Caliphs. The exception is the grave of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Caliph according to Sunni or the first Imām according to Shias, which has a very splendid golden shrine erected on it and today his shrine along with the shrine of his Son, Hossein, are two of the holiest Shrines of Shia Muslims in Iraq (Heck, 2006 and Hällzon, 2009). ~ 72 ~ According to historical documents, a large portion of modern Central Asia (which in ancient times was known as Khorasmia, Sogdiana and part of Khurasan) and Iran were part of a wider cultural milieu, namely the Turco-Persian sphere. In ancient times and before Islam was introduced, this cultural sphere was a bridge between East and West and the confluence of several civilizations stemming from China, India, and the Middle East. Along the so-called Silk Road, Parthian and Persian traders from the Parthian and Sassanian Empires of the Middle East became prominent as early as 247 BCE (Foltz, 2010). These communities were instrumental in the exchange, not only of material goods, but also of ideas and several religious traditions flowing between East and West. After the fifth century, a confederation of Turkic tribes from around the eastern Altai Mountains moved westward and a century later replaced Iranian speaking groups who had migrated to Iran and India. From 552 to 654, these groups of Turks together with the Sasanian Empire controlled Central Asia (Frye, 1984 and Levi, 2007). The introduction of Islam accelerated the Persianisation of the Iranian speaking communities; subsequently the Arabicized version of Persian became the lingua franca among other ethnicities, predominantly the former Turkic and Indian language speakers throughout Central Asia. This has given rise to the so-called “Turco-Persian” culture, a blend of indigenous, largely Turkic customs and beliefs as well as cosmopolitan, Islamicized Persian tradition and Arabic language (Mazzaoui, 2011).[7] Canfield (2002: 12) discusses the religious similarities in a general sense: this composite culture was the beginning of the Turko-Persian variant of Islamic culture [in which] Islam was thereafter disengaged from Ebadi Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions Map : The Turco-Persian Cultural World Source: Miscellaneous the Arab background and Bedouin mores from which it had sprung, [to] a far richer, more adaptable, and universal culture. Frye (1996: 231) describes the history of religion in Central Asia as follows: […] At the turn of the millennium [11th Century] Central Asia not only was an important Islamic land, but also became the Turkish center of rule, from which Muslim Turks spread to the Balkans and to Delhi […] it was Arabs who brought Iran and Central Asia together, the Turks were the principal agents for spreading what we have called the Iranian [‘Persian’] version of Islamic culture to the west, even to Constantinople [...] The Samanids were the last Iranian dynasty to rule in Central Asia, and the year 1000 marks the end of the Samanid dynasty. Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Islam, as well as local cults and beliefs, such as divination and worship of natural forces and objects. The influences of the pre-Islamic Central Asian beliefs on the Islamic tenets are strong. It was only a natural development to combine Islam – as a new faith - with old Shamanistic rituals among early Central Asian Muslims. Accordingly, the roots of many of the rituals in modern times can be traced back to ancient times. Among the most popular religious and cultural traditions in Central Asia is the veneration of saints (avliyā) and the visits (ziyārat) to their shrines (mazār), which is widely practiced in both rural and urban areas (Kehl-Bodrogi, 2006). The veneration of holy shrines was most likely introduced by these Persian oriented Turkic tribes across the whole Islamic realm. Shrine Pilgrimage (ziyārat) in Central Asia From ancient times, Central Asia has been home to various faiths such as Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, 7. The presence of Persian culture and tradition in Central Asia is evident down to the present time. One example is the Noruz festival (New Year festival), which is a typical ancient Persian festivity and is celebrated on 21 st of March. ~ 73 ~ Abramson and Karimov (2007: 325), who have extensively researched pilgrimages in Central Asia, comment: At several [...] sites there is evidence of objects that have roots in pre-Islamic animalistic traditions, mixed in with more traditional Islamic objects. [...] In the mazar of Sayid Ibn Abu Vakkos-ota (Sa’as Ibn Malik az-Zuhri) in Shahrisabz Rayon, Kashkadarya Viloyat, a mountain goat horn lies under a carpet that was draped over the tomb.[8] In the same vein, Montgomery, in his work on religion in the everyday life of Central Asia, reports as following: As Islam spread, the populations of the region took on Islam at the expense of earlier International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Volume 4(i) 2016 especially in post-soviet Central Asian countries, up to the present day (DeWeese, 1994; Janzen and Taraschewski, 2009; Abramson and Karimov, 2007; Van Bruinessen, 2008). religions, but not necessarily excluding them completely - many practices associated with earlier faiths, were retained as ‘traditional’ and understood as compatible with Islam (Montgomery, 2007: 356). Other researchers also indicate the variety of preIslamic beliefs, elements, figures, and practices in Central Asia (Bhardwaj, 1998; Dawut, 2009; Harris and Dawut, 2002). In addition, there are also several reports about the fusion of Islamic and pre-Islamic tradition, and ideas like animism, magic, the role of the cult of ancestors, and saints in shrine worship traditions (Lapidus, 1988; Kandiyoti and Azimova, 2004 and Utas, 1999). In the modern era, the frequent political upheavals in Central Asia have also impacted on pilgrimage. DeWeese (1988: 45-83) commenting on pilgrimage in post-Soviet Central Asia notes: [In the modern era], after many decades of life under Soviet socialism, Islamic rituals, such as pilgrimages to sacred sites, are gaining popularity . . . they also have new, contemporary meanings for the region’s Muslims, who are struggling to make sense out of the remarkable social, economic and political changes affecting their lives. In most of the visits to shrines, the purpose of ziyārat among the visitors is to seek the mediation of the saint, based upon a belief in his barakat or savab (God's grace), asking for spiritual guidance, or fulfillment of a vow which could assist with various problems of daily life (like personal health).[9] Indeed, these practices are undoubtedly ancient and pre-Islamic and they were shared by the numerous tribal or religiously-defined groups that spread throughout this large region. These religious rituals are based on a belief in the miraculous power of saints and holy men (known as walis) (Abramson and Karimov, 2007; Eickelman, 1976; Goldziher, 1971; Harris and Dawut, 2002). The German orientalist Annemarie Schimmel, similarly notes the role and nature of baraka(t) in shrine pilgrimage in Islamic cultures as follows: the inherited baraka, the blessing power that surrounded a sheikh [pir and master], made people [followers] flock around his dargah [lit. entering door] (Schimmel, 1980: 138). Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Iran Other researchers have also mentioned that the key role of ziyārat or mazar pilgrimage and the beliefs underlying it are a part of local and even national identity in the everyday spiritual life of Muslims, 8. They later note: […] local mountain goat horns are believed to protect sacred places and the people who make pilgrimages to them, from misfortune and evil (Abramson & Karimov, 2007: 325). 9. Sidky (1990) who researched zeyarat tradition in Afghanistan reports: when a famous ascetic dies, his grave may become a ziarat, or shrine, believed to be endowed with mystical potency, as were the ancient cult-centres of the past. Frequently such shrines become centers of pilgrimage (Sidky, 1990: 285). 10. A saqqā khaneh (Saqqa-Kana) is often a niche in the wall [especially in the Basars] that provides water for travelers and passers-by. It has a stong symbolic function according to Shi’a Islam. In certain Saqqā khanehs, some believers light candles, tie rags to the windows, and make wishes (Encyclopedia Iranica). Similar to Imāmzādeh, Saqqā khanehs are part of the Iranian urban landscape. 11. An Imām according to the Shias plays a crucial role as a major leader, in the whole Muslim’s community (Umma). In the eyes of the Shia believers, only the decendants of the Prophet Mohammad can assume this role. The title of Imām given to Khomeini is an honorary epithet. ~ 74 ~ In Iran, ziyārat includes the visits of believers to sacred sites (ziyāratgah in Persian), which can be natural features (such as springs, trees, stones, etc.) or buildings related to Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, or Islamic beliefs. Places frequented by Muslim pilgrims can be Saqqa-khāneh,[10] Khāneqāh (a Sufi lodging), or religious schools (madrase). Special kinds of holy places are imāmzādeh (also spelled as emamzada or emamzadeh), which were originally dedicated to a descendent of a Shiʿite Imām.[11] They can also be connected to the companions and the family of the Prophet Muhammad and other venerated figures in mystical Islam or spiritual leaders. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 - 12,000 imāmzādehs and holy shrines in the country, of which less than 4000 are officially registered. Each year, it is estimated that more than 50 millions travellers visit these holy shrines (Ayaz, 2012; Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2011; DW, 2012; CHTN, 2013). Iranian pilgrims (za’er in Persian/Arabic) regularly visit shrines to receive some of the spiritual power (barakat). They expect that making such a pilgrimage will bring them a religious reward (or savāb). It has Ebadi Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions of Imām Reza in Mashhad (Zamani-Farahani and Hendersom, 2011; Mehrnews, 3/4/2014). Besides the shrine of these two Imām and several Imāmzādehs, there are other shrines which are connected with Sufi saints (‘Arifs) such as Shaikh Abu-Hassan Kharqani and his master Bayazid Bastami; scientists and mystical poets like Avicenna (Pur Sina) in Hamedan, Mahmud Shabistari in Shabestar, Attar and Khayyam in Neyshabur, and Hafez and Sa’adi in Shiraz. Often next to a holy site, some natural elements such as trees or similar are venerated as well. Among the most important sacred places related to Zoroastrianism are the ancient temples of Chak Chak (Pir-e Sabz) near Yazd and Takht-e Soleyman near Tekab, which nowadays are visited mostly by tourists rather than pilgrims. But the most important political shrine, certainly, belongs to that of Ayatollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic. Each year on the anniversary of his death, thousands of people from the whole country come to visit his shrine to pay their respects. In fact, the shrine of Ayatollah Khomeini, symbolizes the two faces of modern Iran: The religious and the national one. been suggested that ziyārat in Iran has antique preIslamic roots (Hällzon, 2009; Torab, 1996, 2002, 2007). Frye (1975: 140) refers to the influence of Zoroastrianism (the dominant religion before Islam in Iran) on the tradition of ziyārat: [Although] Zoroastrians did not have graveshrines, since the bodies of the dead were exposed to vultures and not put in the earth . . . the Zoroastrians of Iran did have shrines to various angels or deities (yazatas) [like Anahita] and it was relatively easy to convert some of these to [use by] Muslims, or more especially Shi’ite Imāms. The name pir (lit. old man) or saint was applied to these shrines by Zoroastrians, possibly to protect them from Muslim desecration, and this only made easier the transfer from Zoroastrian to a Muslim shrine. As an example, Frye (1975) cites the transformation of the originally Zoroastrian shrine of Bibi shahrbanu (near Tehran) to a famous Muslim shrine with the help of a story that suggest that the daughter of that last king of pre-Islamic Iran (Yazdgerd III) was betrothed to Husain (the third Imām or spiritual leader in Shi’ism). Overall, in modern Iran, shrine pilgrimage has benefitted from the political circumstances prevailing in the Islamic Republic. Ziyārat, in addition to imāmzādehs, also includes visits to the tombs of the ‘Martyrs’ of the Islamic Revolution of 1979 and to those fallen in the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988).[12] Recently, Ayaz (2012) discusses the reasons behind this renewed promotion of pilgrimage to shrines, which are now extended to include the commemoration of fallen soldiers in the Iran-Iraq war and assassinated leaders (i.e. the Martyrs) of the Revolution. Firstly, this pilgrimage is a way to configure a new state system that sees Iran developing into a nation of believers. Secondly, she cites a practical reason: Many holy places that are important to Iranian Shi’ites are located outside Iran and were almost inaccessible during the Iran-Iraq war and the tension with Saudi Arabia.[13] Mayhew (2010), a professional British travel writer, who has written several travel guides books for the Lonely Planet series, has recently illustrated the function of the Iranian shrines in a TV documentary project called Marco Polo Reloaded, 2010: There are thousands of shrines or imāmzādeh in Iran. In their very existence popular belief, pre-islamic pilgrimage tradition, and the formal, clerical side of Islam intermingle [with each other]. Some of these shrines such as the shrine of the Shah Abol Azim in southern Tehran constitute huge and splendid complexes of buildings. Others are small, of only local significance and with [nothing more than] a kiosk, laundry, cooking, and simple accommodation facilities for the pilgrims attached to it. However, virtually, all imāmzadehs in Iran are furnished with carpets to allow for overnight stays. Being on the road in Iran, one again and again passes by such shrines, many of which are located directly next to petrol stations that bear the names of famous Shiite martyrs. (Online Access: www.marcopolo-reloaded.com) Nowadays, undoubtedly, two of the most sacred pilgrimage places in Iran are the shrine of Imām Reza (the eighth Shi’a Imām) in Mashhad and the shrine of his Sister Fatimeh Ma’sumeh in Qom. Accordingly, each year more than 25 million pilgrims visit the shrine 12. This form of (qasi) religious pilgrimage is known as ‘war tourism’ in the literature. 13. There is also a historical precedent during the era of Safavid-Ottoman relations (16th century), when political restrictions were imposed on Iranian pilgrims entering Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem (which were under the control of the Ottomans). Instead, the Safavid Shah Abbas II encouraged pilgrimage to shrines inside Iran (Rizvi, 2009). ~ 75 ~ International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Volume 4(i) 2016 Conclusion Pilgrimage, or religiously motivated travel, plays a major role in the social life of Muslims and is an important part of Islamic fabric. From North Africa, to the Middle East and Central, and South / Southeast Asia, shrine pilgrimage is common among Muslims. Numerous Sufi lodgings (khanegahs), shrines, schools, mosques, tombs (mazars), and mausoleums of saints, martyrs, Sufi-masters, and other holy men and women, attract millions of pilgrims, who travel substantial distances to these centres. According to Islamic traditions, Muslims are encouraged to travel, not only to bear witness to the greatness of God, but also to gain knowledge, learn about other cultures, and meet pious and wise people. Generally, the ‘religious’ travels of Muslims around the world are classified into two forms: Mandatory (Hajj) and voluntary (ziyārat). An important distinction should therefore be made between Hajj and ziyārat. The Hajj is considered to be the ‘official’ or ‘normative’ form of Islamic pilgrimage with well-established rituals, whereas the ziyārat is a ‘popular’ (i.e. volkstümlich) or ‘alternative’ form of pilgrimage which is practiced in different forms among people from different cultures. Among the regions where shrine pilgrimage (ziyārat) is strongly popular and practiced is the region with Turkic or Iranian cultures, especially in Iran and Central Asia. Since ancient times, Central Asia was home to various faiths such as Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity, Islam as well as local cults and beliefs, such as divination and worship of natural forces and objects. Among the most popular religious and cultural traditions in Central Asia are the veneration of saints (avliyā) and visits (ziyārat) to their shrines (mazār), practices which are widely undertaken in both rural and urban areas. Numerous followers who believe in the miraculous power of saints and holy men (walis - also known as avliyo) make pilgrimage (ziyārat) to sites which are presumed to be graves of such individuals, or some other physical memorial. In Iran ziyārat includes visits of believers to sacred sites (ziyāratgah in Persian), which can be natural features (such as springs, trees, stones, etc.) or buildings related to Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, or Islamic beliefs. Places frequented by Muslim pilgrims can be Saqqa-khāneh, Khāneqāh (a Sufi lodging), or religious schools (madrase). Special kinds of holy places are imāmzādeh which are originally dedicated to descendents of Shiʿite Imāms. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 - 12,000 ~ 76 ~ imāmzādehs and holy shrines in Iran. Besides the shrine of Imam Reza (the most famous shrine) and several Imāmzādehs, there are other shrines which are connected with Sufi saints (‘Arifs), scientists, mystical poets, and so on. The most important political shrine in Iran is the shrine of Ayatollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic which on the anniversary of his death is visited by thousands of people from the whole country. References Abramson, D., Karimov, E. (2007) ‘Sacred Sites, Profane Ideologies: Religious Pilgrimage and the Uzbek State’, in: Sahadeo, Jeff, Russell Zanca (eds.) Everyday Life in Central Asia Past and Present. Bloomington: Indiana Universtiy Press, 319-38. Ayaz, M. (2012) ‘Between history and memory, A case study of a martyr mausoleum in Iran’, In: Khosronejad, Pedram (ed.) Saints and their Pilgrims in Iran and Neighbouring Countries: Lighting Source, 83-105. Barnes, R., Branfoot, C. (2006) Pilgrimage: the sacred journey: Ashmolean Museum. Bhardwaj, S. (1998) ‘Non-Hajj Pilgrimage in Islam, A Neglected Dimension of Religious Circulation’, Journal of Cultural Geography, 17(2) 69-87. Canfield, R.L. (2002) Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective: Cambrdige University Press. [orig. 1991] CHTN (Cultural Handicraft Tourism News) (2013) ‘last year more than 50 milions travelers visit the shrines in Iran’ online access under www.chtn.ir (06.05.2013) Coleman, S., Elsner, J. (1995) Pilgrimage, Past and Present, Sacred Travel and Sacred Space in the world religions: British Museum Press. Daneshvari, A. (1986) Medieval tomb towers of Iran: an iconographical study, USA: Mazda publishers. Dawut, R. (2009) Shrine pilgrimage among the Uighurs, The Silk Road, 6(2) www.silkroadfoundation.org. DeWeese, D. (1994) Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition: Pennsylvania State University Press. Din, K.H. (1989) Islam and Tourism: patterns, Issues, and options, Annals of Tourism Research, 16:542563. Ebadi Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions DW (Deutsche Welle Persian) (2012) just one fifth of the Iranian Imāmzādeh are registerede [tanha yek panjom emamzadehaie iran shenasnameh darand] online access at 13.12.2012 under http:// www.dw.de. Lymer, K. (2004) Rags and Rock Art: the landscapes of Holy Site Pilgrimage in the Republic of Kazakhstan, World Archaeology, 36 (1) 158-172. Eickelman, D. F., Piscatori, J. (1990) Muslim Travellers: pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination: University of California Press, Rotledge. Mehrnews (2014) http://mehrnews.com/detail/ News/2263729, (15/01/1393). Foltz, R. (2010) Religions of The Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization, second edition, Palgrave Macmillan. Frye, R. N. (1975) The Golden Age of Persia: The Arabs in the East: Phoenix Press. Frye, R. (1996) The Heritage of Central Asia: Markus Wiener. Goldziher, I (1971) Muslim Studies. Chicago: Aldine Publishers Hällzon, P. (2009) Stepping onto Sacred Ground. The mazar in Uyghur day-to-day life, in: Ahlbäck, T., Dahla, B. (ed.) Pilgrimage Today: based on papers read at the symposium on pilgrimages today held at Åbo, Finland, on 19-21 August 2009, 87-122. Harris, R., Dawut, R. (2002) Mazar Festivals of the Uyghurs, Music, Islam and the Chinese State, British Journal of Ethnomusiocology, 11(1) 101118. Heck, P.L. (2006) Sufism and Politics: The Power of Sprituality. Princeton: Markus Wiener. Janzen, J., Taraschewski, T. (2009) Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia) – A Central Asian City of Pilgrimage. In: Shahshahani, Soheila (ed.) Cities of Pilgrimage, Transaction Publisher. Kandiyoti, D., Azimova, N. (2004) The Communal and the Sacred: Women’s Worlds of Ritual in Uzbekistan, Royal Anthropological Institute, 10:327 -349. Kehl-Bodrogi, K. (2006) who owns the shrine? Competing meanings and authorities at a pilgrimage site in Khorezm Central Asia Survey, 25(3), 235250. Mazzaoui, M. M. (2011) A Brief History of Iran: Sonlight Christian. Montgomery, D. W. (2007) Namaz, Wishing Trees, and Vodka: The Diversitiy of Everyday Religious Life in Central Asia, in: Sahadeo, J., Zanca, R. (eds.) Everyday Life in Central Asia: Past and Present: Indiana University Press, 355-370 Pragner, L. (2013) Alawi ziyara traditions and their inter-religious dimensions: Sacred places and their contested meanings among Christians, Alawis and Sunni Muslims in contemporary Hatay (Turkey). In: The Muslim World 103 (1) 41-61 Privratsky, B.G. (2001) Muslim Turkistan, Kazak Religion and Collective Memory: Curzon Press. Rinschede, G. (1988) The Pilgrimage Center of Fatima/Portugal, in: Rinschede, G. and Bhardwaj (eds.), Pilgrimage in World Religions: Presented to Prof. Dr. Angelika Siever on the Occasion of Her 75th Birthday: Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 65-98. Rizvi, K. (2009) “Sites of Pilgrimage and Objects of Devotion”, in: Canby, Sheila (ed.) Shah ‘Abbas: The Remaking of Iran, London: British Museum Press. Schadl, M. (2009) The Shrine of Nasir Khusraw Imprisoned deep in the valley of Yumgan, Muqarnas, 26:63-93 Schimmel, A. (1980) Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Leiden: Brill.Sidky (1990) Soucek, S. (2000) A History of Inner Asia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Timothy, D. J., Iverson, T. (2006) Tourism and Islam: considerations of culture and duty, in: D. J. Timothy and D. H. Olsen (eds.) Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys: Routledge, 186-205. Khosronejad, P. (2012) Saints and their Pilgrims in Iran and Neighbouring Countries: Lighting Source. Torab, A. (1996) Piety as Gendered Agency: A Study of Jalaseh Ritual Discourse in an Urban Neighbourhood in Iran, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S.) 2(2) 235-52. Lanquar, R. G. (2011) Pilgrims between East and West, in: Religious Tourism in Asia and the Pacific, published by World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain, 1-9. Van Bruinessen, M. (2008) Religious practices in the Turko-Iranian world: continuity and Change, in: Djalili, Mohammad-Reza et al., (eds.) Le Monde Turco-Iranien En Question: Karthala. Lapidus, I.M. (1988) A history of Islamic societies, Cambridge University Press. Zamani-Farahani, H., Hendersom, J.C. (2011) IranShia Pilgrimage and Tourism. In: Religious Tourism in Asia and the Pacific, World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Levi, S. (2007) Turks and Tajiks in Central Asian History, in: Sahadeoand, Jeff, Russell Zanca (eds.) Everyday life in Central Asia: Indiana University Press. 15-32. ~ 77 ~