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Support material annexes. Unit 1. Life’s building blocks Do not write on this sheet Activity 1. Pupils’ text page 8. Cell theory. Historical time line activity∗ Hans and Zacharias Janssen Dutch lens grinders, father and son produced first compound microscope (2 lenses) Robert Hooke (1665) English scientist looked at a thin slice of cork (oak cork) through a compound microscope observed tiny, hollow, roomlike structures called these structures 'cells' because they reminded him of the rooms that monks lived in only saw the outer walls (cell walls) because cork cells are not alive Anton van Leeuwenhoek (around the same time as Hooke 1680?) Dutch fabric merchant and amateur scientist looked at blood, rainwater, scrapings from teeth through a simple microscope (1 lens) observed living cells; called some 'animalcules' some of the small 'animalcules' are now called bacteria Matthias Schleiden (1838) German botanist viewed plant parts under a microscope discovered that plant parts are made of cells Theodor Schwann (1839) German zoologist viewed animal parts under a microscope discovered that animal parts are made of cells Rudolph Virchow (1855) German physician stated that all living cells come only from other living cells ∗ From http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/cellhist.htm Unit 1 i Do not write on this sheet Activity 1. Pupils’ text page 8. Landmarks in Study of Cell Biology∗ 1595 Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope SCROLL DOWN 1626 Redi postulated that living things do not arise from spontaneous generation. 1655 Hooke described 'cells' in cork. 1674 Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later. 1833 Brown described the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid. 1838 Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory. 1840 Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also cells. 1856 N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell. 1858 Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist) expounds his famous conclusion: omnis cellula e cellula , that is cells develop only from existing cells [cells come from preexisting cells] 1857 Kolliker described mitochondria 1869 Miescher isolated DNA for the first time. 1879 Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis 1883 Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity. 1898 Golgi described the golgi apparatus 1926 Svedberg developed the first analytical ultracentrifuge. 1938 Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from cytoplasm. 1939 Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electronic microscope. ∗ From http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/cell.text.htm Unit 1 ii Do not write on this sheet Activity 1. Pupils’ text page 8. 1941 Coons used fluorescent labelled antibodies to detect cellular antigens. 1952 Gey and co-workers established a continuous human cell line. 1953 Crick, Wilkins and Watson proposed structure of DNA double-helix. 1955 Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in culture. 1957 Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation in cesium chloride solutions for separating nucleic acids. 1965 Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial scanning electron microscope. 1976 Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines require different mixtures of hormones and growth factors in serum-free media. 1981 Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cells line established. 1987 First knockout mouse created. 1998 Mice are cloned from somatic cells. 2000 Human genome DNA sequence draft. Unit 1 iii Do not write on this sheet Activity 4. Pupils’ text page 16 Cell Photographs∗ Cell Photographs for Cell Comparison Lab Is it a plant cell or is it an animal cell? Here are 6 microscope images of cells, some are animal some are plant cells. ∗ From http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/cellhist.htm Unit 1 iv Microscope activity Cell Comparison Lab Student Answer Sheet * Draw the cells you see from your microscope field in the circles below. * Label on the first line whether it is a plant cell or an animal cell. * Explain what distinguishing characteristic(s) makes them a plant or an animal cell. 1) 2) Plant or Animal?_______________ Plant or Animal?_______________ Explain: Explain: 3) 4) Plant or Animal?_______________ Plant or Animal?_______________ Explain: Explain: 5) 6) Plant or Animal?_______________ Plant or Animal?_______________ Explain: Explain: Unit 1 v Unit 1 vi Do not write on this sheet Lab 1. Introduction to the microscope. Lab practice. Introduction to the microscope. In this lab, we will be using a microscope to look at different types of cells. A microscope (micro = tiny or small; scope = to see) is really just two magnifiers or lenses working together. The objective lens (near the object) is down near the slide and the other is inside the cylinder that you look into (it is called the eyepiece, being near your eye). Together, these lenses are able to magnify an object much more than a single lens can. You can change how much you magnify an object by using different objective lenses. Part A: Microscope Handling 1. Carry the microscope with both hands --- one on the arm and the other under the base of the microscope. Keep the base parallel to the ground. 2. Take off the dust cover and plug it in. Do not turn it on until the teacher tells you to do it. 3. Listen to your teacher and pay attention to the rules about using a microscope. 4. Let’s explore the microscope. What are the functions of the following parts of the microscope? a) diaphragm b) ocular c) objective d) course adjustment e) fine adjustement f) stage 5. Turn off the microscope and wind up the wire so it resembles its original position. Place the low power objective in place and lower the body tube. Cover the scope with the dust cover. Place the scope back in its original space in the cabinet. Part B: Calculation of magnification. 1. Find the ocular of the microscope; examine the ocular to determine its magnification. 2. Find the objectives; examine the objectives to determine the magnification of each. 3. The total magnification is calculated by multiplying the magnification of the ocular by the magnification of the objective being used. 4. Determine the minimum total magnification of the microscope. Locate the numbers on the eyepiece and the low power objective and fill in the blanks below. Eyepiece magnification __________ Objective magnification Total Magnification X = _________ _________ X 10. Determine the maximum total magnification of the microscope. Unit 1 vii Do not write on this sheet Lab 1. Introduction to the microscope. Part C: Preparing a wet mount of the letter “e”. 11. One person from each group will now go over to the microscope storage area and properly transport one microscope to your working area. 12. The other person in the group will pick up a pair of scissors, newspaper, a slide, and a cover slip. 13. Remove the dust cover. Plug in the scope. Do not turn it on until the teacher tells you to do it. 14. With your scissors cut out the letter "e" from the newspaper. 15. Place it on the glass slide the right way round so it looks like an “e”. 16. Using your eyedropper, place a drop of water on top of the letter 17. Cover it with a clean cover slip. Lower the outer edge of the coverslip toward the slide and when it has reached about 45º or less, gently release it, so that no air gets trapped. See the picture below. 18. Turn on the microscope and place the slide on the stage, making sure the "e" is facing the normal reading position. Using the course focus and low power, move the body tube down until the "e" can be seen clearly. Draw what you see. A) Describe the relationship between what you see through the eyepiece and what you see on the stage. B) Offer an explanation of why this happened. 19. Looking through the eyepiece, move the slide to the upper right area of the stage. What direction does the image move? 20. Now, move it to the lower left side of the stage. What direction does the image move? 21. Re-centre the slide and change the scope to high power. You will notice the "e" is out of focus. Do Not touch the coarse focus knob, instead use the fine focus to resolve the picture. Draw the image you see of the letter e (or part of it) on high power. 22. Locate the diaphragm under the stage. Move it and write down the changes in light intensity that you observe. Unit 1 viii Do not write on this sheet Lab 1. Introduction to the microscope. Conclusion Questions: 1. Write down 3 procedures which must be used to handle a light microscope properly. 2. Explain why the light microscope is also called the compound microscope. 3. Images observed under the light microscope are reversed and inverted. Explain why. 4. Explain why the specimen must be centered in the field of view on low power before going to high power. 5. A microscope has a 20 X ocular (eyepiece) and two objectives of 10 X and 43 X respectively: a.) Calculate the low power magnification of this microscope. Show your formula and all work. b.) Calculate the high power magnification of this microscope. Show your formula and all work. 6. In a minimum of three steps using complete sentences, describe how to make a proper wet mount of the letter e. 7. Describe the changes in the field of view and the amount of available light when going from low to high power using the compound microscope. 8. Explain what the microscope user may have to do to combat the problems incurred in question # 7. 9. How does the procedure for using the microscope differ under high power as opposed to low power? Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Unit 1 ix Unit 1 x Unit 1 xi Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities 1. eyepiece-where you look through to see the image of your specimen. 2. body tube-the long tube that holds the eyepiece and connects it to the objectives. 3. nosepiece-the rotating part of the microscope at the bottom of the body tube; it holds the objectives. 4. objective lenses-(low, medium, high, oil immersion) the microscope may have 2, 3 or more objectives attached to the nosepiece; they vary in length (the shortest is the lowest power or magnification; the longest is the highest power or magnification). 5. arm-part of the microscope that you carry the microscope with. 6. coarse adjustment knob-large, round knob on the side of the microscope used for focusing the specimen; it may move either the stage or the upper part of the microscope. 7. fine adjustment knob-small, round knob on the side of the microscope used to fine-tune the focus of your specimen after using the coarse adjustment knob. 8. stage-large, flat area under the objectives; it has a hole in it (see aperture) that allows light through; the specimen/slide is placed on the stage for viewing. 9. stage clips-shiny, clips on top of the stage which hold the slide in place. 10. aperture-the hole in the stage that allows light through for better viewing of the specimen. 11. diaphragm-controls the amount of light going through the aperture. 12. light or mirror-source of light usually found near the base of the microscope; the light source makes the specimen easier to see. From http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/micrpart.htm Unit 1 xii Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Introduction "Micro" refers to very small, "scope" refers to view or look at. Microscopes are tools used to enlarge images of small objects so they can be studied. The compound light microscope is an instrument containing two lenses, which magnifies, and a variety of knobs to resolve (focus) the picture. Because it uses more than one lens, it is sometimes called the compound microscope in addition to being referred to as being a light microscope. In this lab, we will learn about the proper use and handling of the microscope. 1. Always carry the microscope with two hands - one on the arm and one underneath the base of the microscope. Hold it up so that it does not hit tables or chairs. Never swing the microscope. 2. Do not touch the lenses. If they are dirty, ask your teacher for special lens paper or ask the teacher to clean the lenses for you. Teachers - remember that you may use a soft cloth dipped in a small amount of isopropyl alcohol to clean the lenses. 3. If using a microscope with a mirror, do not use direct sunlight as the light source. Eye damage can result. If using a microscope with a light, turn off light when not in use. 4. Be cautious when handling glass slides and coverslips. Notify your teacher if a slide or coverslip breaks. Students should not handle broken glass. Safety concerns: Teachers and students, be sure to keep all Glass and Sharp instrument Safety Rules that are given by the teacher and in all general laboratory experiences when preparing microscope slides. 5. Always clean slides and microscope when finished. 6. Store microscope set on the lowest objective with the nosepiece turned down to its lowest position (using the coarse adjustment knob). Turn off light. 6. Cover microscope with dust cover and return microscope to storage, if requested by teacher. From http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/micrhand.htm Unit 1 xiii Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities 14th century, Italian monks developed the art of grinding lenses; these lenses were made into spectacles to improve the monks' failing eyesight. In 1590, Hans and Zacharias Janssen (Dutch lens grinders) mounted 2 lenses in a tube to produce the first compound microscope (one with 2 main lenses). In 1665, Robert Hooke used a crude compound microscope to observe thin slices of cork cells from 'cork oak' trees. Cork is the very fast growing bark of the tree. The bark can be periodically stripped from a tree and used to build ships as it is a very durable wood that resists rotting from water and mold when wood is constantly wet. Hooke may have studied cork because it was economically very valuable to the English and their ship-building industry. Around the same time as Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple microscope (1 lens) to look at blood, rainwater, teeth scrapings, etc. A Light microscope - is a compound microscope that uses mirrors or a light source to see the specimen in a better way. Transmission electron microscope was invented in the 1930's. It forms an image by electrons passing through a specimen. It is capable of higher resolution than the scanning electron microscope. Scanning electron microscope was developed later than transmission electron microscope. It forms an image by having electrons bombard the surface of the specimen and allowing the secondary (lower energy) electrons to be emitted "Look at the wee-beasties" is a phrase attributed to Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. No matter what your interest is, most of us enjoy finding things through a microscope! Cells can only be discovered by looking through microscopes. Join us now and explore this hidden world. Read the text carefully, and then answer the questions about the text, in full sentences, in your jotter. Turn over the sheet of paper to see the questions Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! From http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/micrhist.htm Unit 1 xiv Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Questions: (Remember to answer in complete sentences and write the answers in your jotter) 1. Who developed the first lenses and when? 2. Who made the first compound microscope? When did this happen? 3. What is a compound microscope? 4. What did Robert Hooke observe with a compound microscope? 5. Why did he choose cork? 6. What did Leeuwenhoek look at with a simple microscope? 7. What is a light compound microscope? 8. What do you know about transmission electron microscopes? 9. Why was the invention of the microscope so important? 10. Who said “Look at the wee-beasties”? 11. Now translate the text into your mother tongue! Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Unit 1 xv Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Making and staining wet mounts Lab practice. Making and staining wet mounts. Aim: To learn to make and stain wet mounts of animal and plant cells. Apparatus and Materials: Microscope Toothpicks Slides Cover slips Methyl blue Onion root Tincture of iodine (lugol solution) Method: Part A: Human cheek cells 1. Hold a clean toothpick and gently scrape the inside of your cheek. This will release some of the cells lining your cheek. 2. Take a clean microscope slide and spread the cells over the centre of the slide, make sure you get plenty on the slide so you can easily find them under the microscope. 3. Add NO more than one or two drops of methyl blue stain on the cells. Place a small drop of water on it if necessary. 4. Count to ten and then carefully place the cover slip over the area at an angle to avoid bubbles. 4.1. Place one edge of the cover slip along one side of the slide. 4.2. Lower the outer edge of the cover slip toward the slide and when it has reached about 45º or less, gently release it. 5. Focus the slide on low power. Examine the slide carefully, and when you see an area where the cheek cells are clearly seen, go to a higher power. The methyl blue stain allows you to see the cells clearly. Look carefully for some pale irregular shapes with blue circle or oval in the middle. Most cheek cells will show this; the oval is the nucleus of the cell. 6. Draw the cells at a low and a high power and label the drawings. Are any of your cells in groups? Unit 1 xvi Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Making and staining wet mounts Part B: Onion root cells. 1. Peel a thin transparent layer of onion skin approximately 2 cm2. This should be taken from the inside of the onion. 2. Place it onto a clean microscope slide. Ensure that it is flat and not folded over. 3. Place a drop of lugol solution over the onion skin. Let it sit for 2-3 minutes to absorb the stain. 4. Place a drop of water on the onion skin and then take a cover slip and place it over the area at an angle to avoid bubbles. See point 4 in part A. 5. Take a paper towel fold it over and then place it on top of the cover slip. 6. Take your thumb and roll it gently, but firmly, over the centre of the slide. This flattens the cells. 7. Remove the paper towel. This method is called “squashing” and the slide you are preparing is called a “squash” 8. Examine the slide under low power. Examine the slide carefully. Find an area where the onion root cells are clearly seen. Draw the cells at low power. 9. Go to the next highest magnification and draw the cells and label it. Onion root is a plant cell, but there are No chloroplasts that can be seen. Explain why. What differences can you see in comparison to the human cheek cells? Part C: Elodea Leaf Cells. 1. With scissors cut a small piece (approximately 1 cm2) of the top of an elodea leaf. 2. Place it on a clean slide an place a drop of water on it. 3. Cover it with a cover slip (remember to avoid bubbles). 4. This slide will not be stained and will be examined under the microscope without any further preparation. This is called a “whole mount”. 5. Examine the slide under low power. Find an area where the elodea cells are clearly seen. Go to the next highest magnification and make a properly drawing and label it. What differences can you see in comparison to the human cheek cells? Onion root cells? Elodea is a plant cell, notice the chloroplasts and a large central vacuole. The chloroplasts in Elodea often undergo “cytoplasmic streaming”. Explain what this is. Unit 1 xvii Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Making and staining wet mounts Comparison of onion epidermal cells and epithelial (cheek) cells from the mouth. Fill in the table below with the information requested Differences Cheek Epithelial Cells Onion Epidermal Cells Cheek Epithelial Cells Onion Epidermal Cells Cheek Epithelial Cell Onion Epidermal Cell Write the differences between cheek cells and onion cells in the box under their titles. Similarities Write your likenesses between the cheek cells and the onion cells in the box under their titles. Drawing of Cells Draw the two types of cells in the box under their titles. Unit 1 xviii Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Lab practice. Observation of prepared slides of blood cells. Aim: To learn draw and label prepared slides. Apparatus and Materials: Microscope Prepared slides of blood cells Method: 1. Look at the prepared slide of human blood given to you. The blood cells have been stained with a dye similar to methyl blue. 2. Place it under the microscope and examine it at the lowest power. 3. Observe very carefully and try to identify individual cells. Find the red cells; they are the ones you see everywhere. What do they do for us? Look carefully: do the red blood cells have nuclei? 4. See if you can find some other cells with nuclei among the red cells. 5. Draw what you see on low power. Pay attention to detail 6. Increase the magnification and draw what you see. Label any parts of the cell that are visible. Lab practice. Observation of pond or aquarium water. Aim: To observe and identify living cells. Apparatus and Materials: Microscope Pond or aquarium water Slides Cover slips Method: 1. Place a few drops of pond or aquarium water on a slide and put a cover slip on top. 2. Do not use any dye (methyl blue), as it will kill the protists! 3. Look at the slide under your microscope starting at low power. 4. Look near the decaying leaves of the water plants and try to find living cells. If the cells or animals are moving they are probably alive. 5. Draw what you see. If you can identify any parts, label them. Try to identify what organisms you have discovered. How do you think the cheek cells and red cells get food as compared to the protists? Could cheek cells or blood cells survive as a single-celled organism? Why? Unit 1 xix Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Lab practice. Observation of yeast cells. Aim: To observe and identify living yeast cells. Apparatus and Materials: Microscope Solution with yeast culture Slides Cover slips Method: 1. Place a few drops of the yeast culture on a slide and put a cover slip on top. 2. Do not use any dye (methyl blue…) 3. Look at the slide under your microscope starting at low power. 4. Try to find yeast cells. Some of the cells may be dividing. 5. Draw what you see. 6. In order to see the cells more clearly a stain will be used. Place a drop of lugol solution just at the edge of the cover slip. It should be in contact with the water under the cover slip. 7. Place an absorbent paper towel or tissue at the other side of the cover slip. The towel will draw the water from beneath the slip, which will, in turn, draw the stain into the specimen. This simple method is commonly called “Pulling a stain”. 8. Look at the slide under your microscope starting at low power and draw what you see. Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Unit 1 xx Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Here are some common protozoa to help with identification. Unit 1 xxi Do not write on this sheet Microscope activities Rotifera Euglena Amoebae Unit 1 xxii Crosswords. Unit 1.Life’s building blocks. 1 2 4 5 3 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 4 5 3 6 7 8 9 10 Unit 1 xxiii Crosswords. Unit 1.Life’s building blocks. 1. Organelle. In the animal cells they are small 2. Organelle. The cellular respiration takes place in it. 3. Cellular division 4. “Father” of the cell theory 5. Cells that transform organic material from other beings 6. Made up of cellulose, protects the cell. 7. Glucose + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP) 8. Organelle that build proteins 9. All the chemical reactions that take place in a cell 10. Organelle that control and regulate all cell activities. 1. Organelle. In the animal cells they are small 2. Organelle. The cellular respiration takes place in it. 3. Cellular division 4. “Father” of the cell theory 5. Cells that transform organic material from other beings 6. Made up of cellulose, protects the cell. 7. Glucose + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP) 8. Organelle that build proteins 9. All the chemical reactions that take place in a cell 10. Organelle that control and regulate all cell activities. 1. Organelle. In the animal cells they are small 2. Organelle. The cellular respiration takes place in it. 3. Cellular division 4. “Father” of the cell theory 5. Cells that transform organic material from other beings 6. Made up of cellulose, protects the cell. 7. Glucose + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP) 8. Organelle that build proteins 9. All the chemical reactions that take place in a cell 10. Organelle that control and regulate all cell activities. Unit 1 xxiv Do not write on this sheet Introducing cells: Quiz Open your jotter and answer these questions. Write in full sentences. Copy the question before answering it. 1. What 3 things (structures) do all plant & animal cells contain? 2. What are the 3 things that are only found in green plant cells? 3. What structure would you find in a green plant cell and not in a plant root cell? 4. What is the function of the cell wall in a plant cell? 5. What do you call the jelly-like substance where chemical reactions take place? 6. What is the function of the nucleus in a cell? 7. What is the function of the cell membrane? 8. What is contained in the vacuole in plant cells? 9. What do red blood cells do? 10. What do white blood cells do? 11. Why would you stain plant cells with iodine solution? 12. Why do you slice material to be viewed under the microscope very thinly? 13. What is the color change in iodine solution when there is starch present? 14. What is the cell wall made of? 15. What do you call the substance in cells that makes you look like you do? 16. Where in the cell would you find this substance? 17. List any cell structures you can think of… and then write down their function. Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Unit 1 xxv Maze. Help the poor chromosomes to find their way to the cell. Once finished, glue it in your jotter. Maze. Help the poor chromosomes to find their way to the cell. Once finished glue it in your jotter. Unit 1 xxvi Chopped words. osome vac sues chrom tis cell chlor org leus brane ophyll uole ans ondria cell mem oplast nuc ribo chlor plasm cyto mitoch some wall Directions: The table contains words that have been chopped in half. Find the pieces that fit together and write them down and glue them in your jotter. Chopped words. osome vac sues chrom tis cell chlor org leus brane ophyll uole ans ondria cell mem oplast nuc ribo chlor plasm cyto mitoch some wall Directions: The table contains words that have been chopped in half. Find the pieces that fit together and write them down and glue them in your jotter. Chopped words. osome vac sues chrom tis cell chlor org leus brane ophyll uole ans ondria cell mem oplast nuc ribo chlor plasm cyto mitoch some wall Unit 1 Directions: The table contains words that have been chopped in half. Find the pieces that fit together and write them down and glue them in your jotter. xxvii Unit 1 xxviii Unit 1 xxix Mitosis phases Unit 1 xxx _________is the process of ______________, which is used for: _________is the process of ______________, which is used for: Unit 1 Growth Growth Healing wounds Healing wounds Reproduction (babies develop from single cells) Reproduction (babies develop from single cells) Replacement of old and damaged cells Replacement of old and damaged cells Mitosis ______________ the number of cells. It produces _______ _______________cells from the__________________, each one is _______________cells from the__________________, each one is ___________________ to the _________ cell, and has exactly the ___________________ to the _________ cell, and has exactly the _________________________ as the parent. This makes sure the _________________________ as the parent. This makes sure the _________________________________________________. _________________________________________________. The ____________ of mitosis are: The ____________ of mitosis are: ___________ : ____________ to form_____________, made from ___________ : ____________ to form_____________, made from a______________________. ____________________________. a______________________. ____________________________. Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at ______________ (the central Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at ______________ (the central plane) of the cell. The spindle fibres _________________ of every plane) of the cell. The spindle fibres _________________ of every chromosome. chromosome. Anaphase: Pair of identical ____________________ towards the Anaphase: Pair of identical ____________________ towards the poles (top and bottom, north and south) of the cell. poles (top and bottom, north and south) of the cell. Telophase: Chromatids ___________________. Cytoplasm divides Telophase: Chromatids ___________________. Cytoplasm divides and_____________________________. Cell division is completed. and_____________________________. Cell division is completed. xxxi If the __________________________________ like a human one, then the _____________________________________________. If the __________________________________ like a human one, then the _____________________________________________. Mitosis summary Mitosis ______________ the number of cells. It produces _______ Mitosis summary Fill in the gaps of the text with words or phrases from the list: Mitosis pair of chromatides chromosomes attach to the centromere cell division Prophase parent cell started chromosomes off with 46 original parent cell genetically identical pulled completely to the poles. parent DNA condenses same chromosome component increases Nuclear membrane disappear. chromatides is pulled apart nuclear membrane reforms two new daughter organism keeps the characteristics of its species 2 new daughter cells will each have 46 too!! phases the equator Fill in the gaps of the text with words or phrases from the list: Mitosis pair of chromatides chromosomes attach to the centromere cell division Prophase parent cell started chromosomes off with 46 original parent cell genetically identical pulled completely to the poles. parent DNA condenses same chromosome component increases Nuclear membrane disappear. chromatides is pulled apart nuclear membrane reforms two new daughter organism keeps the characteristics of its species 2 new daughter cells will each have 46 too!! phases the equator Unit 1 xxxii Key words for mytosis Cut out all the sentences and words. Match them correctly. Glue them in your jotter. Stages in the life of a cell. One half of a chromosome. Daughter cells: Structure that holds 2 chromatids together. Cell cycle: Condensed DNA, which can be seen when the cell is dividing by mitosis. Spindle fibre: The 2 new cells produced by mitosis. Chromosomes: Programmed cell division, which produces 2 new cells. Each of these cells has exactly the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mitosis: These are attached to the centromeres of chromosomes during mitosis. They pull the chromosomes apart into 2 chromatids. Centromere: Chromatid: Cut out all the sentences and words. Match them correctly. Glue them in your jotter. Stages in the life of a cell. Daughter cells: One half of a chromosome. Cell cycle: Structure that holds 2 chromatids together. Spindle fibre: Condensed DNA, which can be seen when the cell is dividing by mitosis. Chromosomes: The 2 new cells produced by mitosis. Mitosis: Programmed cell division, which produces 2 new cells. Each of these cells has exactly the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Chromatid: Centromere: These are attached to the centromeres of chromosomes during mitosis. They pull the chromosomes apart into 2 chromatids. Unit 1 xxxiii Cells: Glossary Surrounds plant cells. It is made of cellulose. The basic building blocks of all living things. Cells: Structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls. Cytoplasm: Found in green plants, it contains the green pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis occurs in them. Organ: Jelly-like substance where chemical reactions take place. Contained in the nucleus of a cell, it controls everything the cell does. Controls entry and exit of substances in to and out of the cell. An apparatus which makes small objects seem larger. Controls the functions of the cell; contains DNA. Large group of tissues, which work together. Makes it easier to see the cell’s structures. Large group of similar cells joined together. Cavity in plant cells which stores water, minerals and sugars. Chloroplast: Cell wall: Microscope: Stain: Cellulose: Vacuole: Membrane: Tissue: DNA: Nucleus: Surrounds plant cells. It is made of cellulose. The basic building blocks of all living things. Cells: Structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls. Cytoplasm: Found in green plants, it contains the green pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis occurs in them. Organ: Jelly-like substance where chemical reactions take place. Contained in the nucleus of a cell, it controls everything the cell does. Controls entry and exit of substances in to and out of the cell. An apparatus which makes small objects seem larger. Controls the functions of the cell; contains DNA. Large group of tissues, which work together. Chloroplast: Cell wall: Microscope: Stain: Cellulose: Vacuole: Membrane: Makes the cell’s structures more easily seen. Tissue: Large group of similar cells joined together. DNA: Cavity in plant cells which stores water, minerals and sugars. Nucleus: Unit 1 xxxiv Chromosomes summary Read the text carefully and fill in the gaps with words or sentences from the box below. A chimpanzee and a _____________ each have _______ of __________. So, the number of chromosomes is not responsible for making them different. The thing that makes the ____________ is the __________ _______ in the chromosomes. Each _________________ carries __________ in the form of a ________. Each piece of information is ________________ and the coded information is the ________ one for every individual _______________. For example the genes which ______________ are different from the _____ that make a ___________ although __________________ of chromosomes. It is_________ that the ______ of chromosomes ______________________ _________ If they didn’t, the cell being copied would not be the same as the original cell. The ________________ is responsible for the _____________ in all cells and the ________________________________. For example if cells in your pancreas lost a chromosome it might be the chromosome that contained the insulin gene, so you would then get diabetes. In some _________________ the cell division _________ and the number of _____________________ (23 pairs + __________) and not the 46, which we should have. The babies are then born with _______________. Babies like this show ____________________________________. Here are the sentences or words to use; the first one is already done for you. Chromosomes; genes; privet hedge; difference; important; some mental and physical problems; stays the same every time a cell divides; tobacco plant; number of chromosomes; individual plant or animal; coded information must remain the same; 24 pairs; human pregnancies; information carried; pair of chromosomes; number; chromosomes is 47; chimpanzee; an extra one; both have 23 pairs; Down’s syndrome; code; make us human; called a gene; goes wrong; information; right; genes; number of genes; Unit 1 xxxv Do not write on this sheet No doubts! Read all these questions carefully and choose the correct answer. Write it down in your jotter. 1. Which of these organelles is NOT found in plants? a) Vacuole c) Mitochondrion b) Centriole d) Nucleus 2. Are vacuoles more prominent in plant or animal cells? a) Plants b) Animal 3. Which is the SMALLEST of these four? a) Bacterium c) Virus b) Red blood cell d) Lymphocite 4. In what stage of mitosis are chromatides pulled apart towards the poles of the cell? a) Anaphase c) Prophase b) Telophase d) Metaphase 5. Which of the following is not a part of the cell theory? a) All animals are formed by cells. b) Cells are the reproductive unit of all living beings c) Cells are the smallest form of life. d) Abnormal cells self destruct by apoptosis. 6. What type of microscope would allow you to study the sequence of events that lead to the separation of chromosomes during mitosis? (Chromosomes are found inside the cell's nucleus.) a) Scanning electron microscope b) Light microscope c) Transmission electron microscope d) long-range telescope 7. What is Robert Hooke known for? a) the microscope c) onion cells b) cork cells d) Peter pan Turn page Unit 1 xxxvi Do not write on this sheet No doubts! 8. Cells than don’t have a nucleus are called: a) Eukaryotes c) Plurikaryotes b) Prokaryotes d) Heterotrophics 9. The cellular respiration takes place in: a) Ribosome c) Chloroplast b) Golgi apparatus d) Mitochondrion 10. Cells that transform inorganic material into its own organic material are called: a) Aerobics b) Heterotrophics b) Autotrophics d) Eukaryotes 11. The organelle that controls and regulates all cell activities is: a) The nucleus c) Centrosome b) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Plastids 12. Proteins are built in: a) The nucleus c) Golgi apparatus b) Centrosome d)Ribosome 13. Human cells have 46 chromosomes. How many chromosomes does a human spermatozoon have: a) 23 c) 92 b) 46 d) None 14. What is the name of the phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes line up at the equator (the central plane) of the cell: a) Prophase c) Anaphase b) Metaphase d) Telophase 15. An organ is: a) Similar cells with the same function b) Several organelles with the same function Unit 1 c) Different tissues that work together to perform a specific activity d) A cell without a nucleus xxxvii Support material annexes. Unit 2 Nutrition Activity 9. Human body blood vessels Unit 2 i Activity 9. Human body blood vessels Unit 2 ii Activity 13. Skin drawing Unit 2 iii Label the digestive system Simple version Unit 2 iv Label the digestive system Unit 2 v Digestive glossary Parts of the digestive system (Here are 6 copies) Large intestine Large intestine Large intestine Gallbladder Gallbladder Gallbladder Salivary glands Salivary glands Salivary glands Mouth Mouth Mouth Small intestine Small intestine Small intestine Stomach Stomach Stomach Anus Anus Anus Liver Liver Liver Pancreas Pancreas Pancreas Rectum Rectum Rectum Teeth Teeth Teeth Large intestine Large intestine Large intestine Gallbladder Gallbladder Gallbladder Salivary glands Salivary glands Salivary glands Mouth Mouth Mouth Small intestine Small intestine Small intestine Stomach Stomach Stomach Anus Anus Anus Liver Liver Liver Pancreas Pancreas Pancreas Rectum Rectum Rectum Teeth Teeth Teeth Unit 2 vi Digestive glossary Functions (Here are three copies) First part of the digestive system. First part of the digestive system. Used for biting and tearing off food. Used for biting and tearing off food. Saliva provides some enzymes to Saliva provides some enzymes to start breaking down cooked starch. start breaking down cooked starch. Churns food up to allow digestive Churns food up to allow digestive juices to get at every bit of the food. juices to get at every bit of the food. Digests protein. Digests protein. Stores glycogen, makes bile, Stores glycogen, makes bile, removes excess nitrogen, and many removes excess nitrogen, and many other toxins from the body. other toxins from the body. Stores bile, which is added to food Stores bile, which is added to food in the small intestine.. in the small intestine.. Produces insulin, regulates blood Produces insulin, regulates blood sugar level and converts glucose to sugar level and converts glucose to glycogen. glycogen. Food is broken down and absorbed Food is broken down and absorbed through villi. through villi. Water is absorbed, and faeces are Water is absorbed, and faeces are formed formed Faeces fully formed and stored. Faeces fully formed and stored. Faeces get to the outside world Faeces get to the outside world from here. from here. First part of the digestive system. Used for biting and tearing off food. Produces insulin, regulates blood sugar level and converts glucose to glycogen. Saliva provides some enzymes to Food is broken down and absorbed start breaking down cooked starch. through villi. Churns food up to allow digestive Water is absorbed, and faeces are juices to get at every bit of the food. formed Digests protein. Faeces fully formed and stored. Stores glycogen, makes bile, removes excess nitrogen, and many Faeces get to the outside world from here. other toxins from the body. Stores bile, which is added to food in the small intestine.. Unit 2 vii Digestion summary Digestion summary Food is digested from _______________________________ into small soluble molecules. In the_________, ____________food into________________. The food particles then move down the _____________ (gullet) into the _________where it is ____________, to ___________________________________________.. Food leaves the stomach and is _____________________________________. Digested food particles pass through__________________________________. ___________ is an ___________ found in__________, which breaks ______ into glucose. ______ are digested by the enzyme ________ in the_________________. The enzyme _________ in the ___________ digests ____________. The ___________________________ the ___________ amount of_______, as it is______________, and has a ____________________. The ____________________ absorbs ________ from food. _______ is _______ by the _______, and ________ by the _______________. The ___________ makes ______________. Use words from the list to complete the text, the first one is already done. teeth chew stomach made enzyme digested churned up pancreas small intestine liver Fats starch gall bladder stored pepsin maximum insulin mouth food Bile proteins Amylase large intestine oesophagus very long saliva water stomach lipase smaller particles small intestine absorbs large surface area large insoluble molecules allow digestive enzymes and acid to get at it more easily further digested in the small intestine villi in the walls of the small intestine Unit 2 viii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Breathing in and out. The table has information all about breathing. Open your jotter and copy the table with ONLY the correct answer. Breathing in Breathing out The ribs move The ribs move down and in or out and up down and in or out and up What does the diaphragm do? The diaphragm moves The diaphragm moves up or down up or down What happens to the space inside your chest? The space inside your chests gets The space inside your chests gets bigger or smaller bigger or smaller Your lungs get Your lungs get full (inflated) or empty (deflated) full (inflated) or empty (deflated) What do the ribs do? What happens to your lungs? Respiration Copy out the information below into your jotter. Use the words in the list to help you complete the blanks. I get energy from the food I ____________. Food like _______________ has a lot of energy in it. To get the energy out of the sugar I have to break it down in my body using ________________. This is called ___________________. Oxygen is taken into my body when I ____________________ in. When I do ____________ I need more energy to help my ____________ work. To get more energy I have to __________________ more sugar. I also have to breathe in more oxygen. This is why my ______________________________ goes up when I do exercise. Unit 2 breathe oxygen exercise respiration breathing rate eat muscles sugar breakdown ix DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Digestive and respiratory systems: Quiz Open your jotter and answer these questions. Write in full sentences. Copy the question before answering it. 1. What are the 5 main things you need food for? 2. What molecule is made from long chains of glucose? 3. What are the sub-units of protein? 4. What enzyme breaks down protein in your stomach? 5. What enzyme is found in saliva? 6. What enzyme breaks down fats? 7. What part of your intestine absorbs food? 8. What is absorbed in your large intestine? 9. Muscles in the small intestine, contract behind food, to push it along (called peristalsis)? (True or false?) 10. Apart from digesting protein, what does your stomach do to food? 11. Where is bile made in your digestive system? 12. Where is bile stored in your digestive system? 13. What do you call the breathing tube that goes from your mouth to your lungs? 14. What is the name of the 2 tubes that carry air into your lungs? 15. What is the small air sac called? 16. Why is the air sac well designed for exchanging gases? 17. What 2 gases get exchanged in your lungs? 18. What protects the lungs? 19. What happens to your diaphragm when you breathe in? 20. What happens to your ribs when you breathe in? 21. What covers the surface of the alveoli in your lungs? 22. What is the function of mucus in your airways? 23. What gas do we breathe in? 24. What gas do we breathe out? 25. What is your diaphragm made of? Unit 2 x Label those systems! Unit 2 xi Do not write on this sheet Respiration summary Respiratory summary Our lungs are designed for ____________________, they __________ and ___________________________. This exchange of gases happens ________________. These are at the ______________________ in the lungs. The ______________ from the __________________; the _______then pumps the blood around the body, where the cells perform __________ using the ___________. The respiration process ___________________ we have taken in ___________________. ______________________ diffuses out of the cells as a ______________ of ________________. It then goes into _____________________________ where it is _______________. The _______________ starts in the ____________________ where air is breathed in. It goes from there down the ______________________ and from there to the ___________, the ______________ and eventually to the _____________________. The trachea is lined with cells. These cells are edged with tiny hairs called __________, and cells which_______________. The mucus traps ____________________, which are then swept upwards by the tiny hairs. When the mucus reaches the throat it can be swallowed, then it goes into the stomach where the _____________________________. Use words from the list to complete the text. The first one is already done. lungs make mucus carbon dioxide Respiration bronchi from our food breathed out waste product cilia dirt and germs respiration heart bronchioles oxygen oxygen diffuses respiratory system mouth and nose alveoli (air sacs) lungs into the blood breathe in oxygen exchanging gases trachea (windpipe) releases the energy breathe out carbon dioxide stomach acid kills the germs the bloodstream to the lungs in the air sacs (alveoli) very end of the airways Unit 2 xii Reading comprehension DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! Read the text and then answer the questions, in full sentences, in your jotter. What have we learnt about the respiratory system? The lungs are found in the chest, where they are protected by the rib cage. Air passes from the mouth and nose, down the windpipe until it gets to the air sacs inside the lungs. Oxygen from the air passes from the air sacs into red blood cells, which then carry the oxygen all round the body. Carbon dioxide from the body is carried in the blood, to the air sacs, where it is breathed out. Inside the windpipe, mucus traps dirt and germs, which are then swept up into the throat and swallowed. Acid in the stomach destroys them. When we breathe in, our ribs move out and up, and the diaphragm moves down. This allows the lungs to expand. When we breathe out, our ribs move in and down, and the diaphragm relaxes. This allows our lungs to contract to push the air out of them. Cigarette smoking damages our lungs, by destroying the small hairs. Smoke contains nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Questions: 1. Where are the lungs found? How are they protected? 2. Explain how the air gets from the nose to the alveoli. 3. Where does the oxygen go? What for? 4. What happens to the carbon dioxide? 5. What is the job of the mucus? 6. What happens to the diaphragm and the ribs when we breathe in? 7. What happens to the diaphragm and the ribs when we breathe out? 8. What does cigarette smoke contain? 9. What does cigarette smoking do to our lungs? 10. Translate the text into your mother tongue. Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Hiccups are muscle spasms in the diaphragm Unit 2 xiii Breathing System Crossword 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Clues Across 2. They are protected by the ribs. 5. Little bags found at the end of the air passages. 6. These protect the lungs. 9. A sheet of muscle stretched across the bottom of the rib cage. Clues Down 1. Sticky substance found in the windpipe. 3. Trapped by the mucus in the windpipe. 4. They sway to sweep dirt away from the lungs. 7. This is carried in vessels to the lungs. 8. Air enters the lungs through this. Unit 2 xiv Circulatory system Unit 2 xv Label a Herat!. Internal anatomy Unit 2 xvi Label a Herat!. Internal anatomy aorta - the biggest and longest artery (a blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart) in the body. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the body. inferior vena cava - a large vein (a blood vessel carrying blood to the heart) that carries oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium from the lower half of the body. left atrium - the upper left chamber of the heart. It receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary vein. left ventricle - the lower left chamber of the heart. It pumps the blood through the aortic valve into the aorta. mitral valve - the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It prevents the back-flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium. pulmonary artery - the blood vessel that carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs. pulmonary valve - the flaps between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. When the ventricle contracts, the valve opens, causing blood to rush into the pulmonary artery. pulmonary artery. When the ventricle relaxes, the valve closes, preventing the back-flow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the right atrium. pulmonary vein - the blood vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. right atrium - the upper right chamber of the heart. It receives oxygen-poor blood from the body through the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava. right ventricle - the lower right chamber of the heart. It pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery. septum - the muscular wall that separates the left and right sides of the heart. superior vena cava - a large vein that carries oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium from the upper parts of the body. tricuspid valve - the flaps between the right atrium and the right ventricle. It is composed of three leaf-like parts and prevents the back-flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium. Unit 2 xvii Cardiovascular system Word find From http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/cardiovascular_word_find.html From http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/cardiovascular_word_find.html Unit 2 xviii What am I? Vein, artery, capillary or heart? Thick-walled, carry blood away from the heart Thin-walled, carry blood toward the heart Carry oxygenated blood (high levels of oxygen) Carry deoxygenated blood Contains valves which help prevent the backflow of blood Very thin-walled (one cell thick) Site for the exchange of materials between the blood and body cells Connect arterioles and venules Composed of cardiac muscle It is a 4-chambered pump composed of 2 atria and 2 ventricles Thick-walled, carry blood away from the heart Thin-walled, carry blood toward the heart Carry oxygenated blood (high levels of oxygen) Carry deoxygenated blood Contains valves which help prevent the backflow of blood Very thin-walled (one cell thick) Site for the exchange of materials between the blood and body cells Connect arterioles and venules Composed of cardiac muscle It is a 4-chambered pump composed of 2 atria and 2 ventricles Thick-walled, carry blood away from the heart Thin-walled, carry blood toward the heart Carry oxygenated blood (high levels of oxygen) Carry deoxygenated blood Contains valves which help prevent the backflow of blood Very thin-walled (one cell thick) Site for the exchange of materials between the blood and body cells Connect arterioles and venules Composed of cardiac muscle It is a 4-chambered pump composed of 2 atria and 2 ventricles Unit 2 xix Reading comprehension DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! Read the text and then answer the questions, in full sentences, in your jotter. Reading comprehension: YOUR HEART! Your heart is really a muscle. It's located a little to the left of the middle of your chest, and it's about the size of your fist. There are lots of muscles all over your body - in your arms, in your legs, in your back, even in your behind. But this muscle is special because of what it does - the heart sends blood around your body. The blood provides your body with the oxygen and nutrients it needs. It also carries away the waste that your body has to get rid of. Your heart is similar to a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact opposite: it receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. By the time you're grown up, your heart will be beating (pumping) about 70 times a minute. How does the heart beat? Before each beat, your heart fills with blood. Then it contracts to squirt the blood out. When something contracts, it squeezes tighter - try squeezing your hand into a fist. That's similar to what your heart does so it can squirt out the blood. Your heart does this all day and all night, all the time. Every day, an adult heart pumps 2,000 gallons (7,500 liters) of recycled blood by filling and contracting. The heart is one tough worker! Question: 1. Where is your heart located? 2. Where else can you find muscles in your body besides the heart? 3. Why do we need a heart? 4. Which organ(s) work directly with the heart? 5. Write a summary of the text in English and translate it into your mother tongue. Unit 2 xx DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below Answer the questions using complete sentences. Recap Nutrition Quiz! as fully as possible. You may use diagrams or pictures to supplement your answers, but a diagram or picture alone without an appropriate explanation is inadequate. 1. This equation describes the process of aerobic respiration. Glucose + .............................. → carbon dioxide +.............................. [+ Energy] a) Write in the names of the two missing substances. b) Give two examples of processes which use this energy. 2. The diagram below shows some organs in the human body. a) Which of the parts, labelled A - J on the diagram, is where: (i) water is absorbed; …………….. (ii) villi are found; …………….. (iii) bile is stored? …………….. b) In which part is amylase produced? c) What is the name of that system? 3. This diagram shows a side view of the chest, after breathing in. a) What is the name of A? b) What is the name of the part of the body below A? c) Copy the diagram and draw 2 arrows to show the movement of A and B when the person breathes out. d) What is the name of this system? Unit 2 xxi DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! Recap Nutrition Quiz! e) Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word from the box. oxygen, blood, lungs, carbon dioxide, breathing When you breathe in, air fills your ____________. The __________ passes from the air into your _____________. The gas that passes in the opposite direction is called ____________. This total process is called ___________. The oxygen is used with glucose in the cells to release ____________. 4. This diagram shows a red blood cell. a) What is the name of the red pigment found in red blood cells? b) What is the function of red blood cells? c) Apart from being red, what other characteristics do red blood cells have? 5. Read the passage below and underline the right word in each group of three words in bold type so that it makes sense. The first one has been done for you. Food containing protein passes into the stomach and is acted on by amylase / lipase / protease enzymes, producing amino acids / fatty acids / sugars. The products of protein digestion pass via the bloodstream / gullet / windpipe to the brain / ear / liver. Then they are transported by the digestive / circulatory / breathing system to all the cells in the body. Cells use these products to carry out respiration and produce energy and also some waste substances Eventually this waste substance is taken to the intestines / kidneys / teeth which remove it from the blood cells / plasma / platelets and produce urine as a result. This liquid is stored in the bladder / blood / rectum. The removal of this waste product from the body keeps the body’s internal environment fairly constant – a process called homeostasis. 6. Blood functions as a transport system. Fill in the table below about substances carried in blood plasma. substance origin destination carbon dioxide urea soluble digestion products Unit 2 all body organs organs of the body xxii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! Recap Nutrition Quiz! 7. The diagram shows a cross section of the heart: a) Which chamber of the heart does deoxygenated blood from the body enter first? b) Which chamber contracts to pump blood at the highest pressure? c) Why are there valves between the atria and ventricles? d) Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word from the box. arteries; capillaries; fibres; thick; thin; valves; veins Blood flows from the heart and into the organs of the body in ……….. which have……….. walls containing muscle and elastic ……….. . In the organs blood flows through ……….. which are narrow and have very ……….. walls. Blood flows back to the heart in ……….. which have ……….. to stop blood flowing backwards. 8. Look at these pictures showing the shapes of 3 types of cells found in your body: A B C a) One type of cell moves oxygen around your blood. Choose which type (from A, B or C). b) One type of cell moves mucus along your air passages. Choose which type (from A, B or C) and say something you know about it. c) One type of cell fights infection. Choose which type (from A, B or C) and describe one way it can do this. 9. This apparatus is used to investigate breathing: a) What gas do we test for using lime water? b) What happens to lime water when this gas passes through it? c) Which tube is testing the air we breathe out? d) Give 3 other differences between the air we breathe in and the air we breathe out. Unit 2 xxiii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! Recap Nutrition Quiz! 10. Gemma and Beth measured their breathing rate (in breaths per minute) before they ran a race. Then they measured their breathing rates again after the race, every minute, until their rates returned to normal. They recorded their results in a table: Before exercise Gemma 16 Beth 13 1 45 35 2 38 32 Minutes after exercise 3 4 5 31 24 20 28 22 18 6 17 13 7 16 13 a) Plot 2 line-graphs on the same sheet. Use the vertical axis for breathing rate and the horizontal axis for time. b) Who took longer to recover from the exercise? c) Who do you think was the fitter of the two girls? Give your reasons. 11. Match words in column A with the description in column B. A Superior Vena Cava B Receives blood from the right ventricle and transports it to the lungs Inferior Vena Cava Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and transports it to the left atrium Pulmonary Artery The pathway that carries blood from the heart to all parts of the body with the exception of the lungs Pulmonary Vein The pathway from which blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart Aorta Brings deoxygenated blood from the lower portion of the body and into the right atrium Pulmonary Circulation Supply oxygenated blood to the muscle tissue of the heart Systemic Circulation Brings deoxygenated blood from the upper portion of the body and into the right atrium Coronary arteries Receives blood from the left ventricle and transports it to the rest of the body 12. Match the parts of the body in the first column with the descriptions in the second column. a) stomach 1) most water is absorbed b) small intestine 2) saliva is made here c) large intestine 3) most food is absorbed here d) mouth 4) carries food down to the stomach e) gullet 5) is very acidic Unit 2 xxiv DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! No doubts! Read all these questions carefully and choose the correct answer. Write it down in your jotter. 1. Where in your body are the following found: a) diaphragm? c) valves? b) air sacs? d) capillaries? 2. Blood has many different jobs. Which part of your blood: a) carries oxygen? c) carries dissolved food? b) fights germs? d) helps your blood to clot? 3. In humans, for carbon dioxide to be breathed out, it must pass from the blood into: a) Kidneys c) liver b) alveoli d) stomach 4. Which of the four options below describes how air passes from outside into our lungs? a) nasal cavity, bronchi, bronchioles, pharynx, trachea b) nasal cavity, trachea, pharynx, bronchi, bronchioles c) nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles d) nasal cavity, bronchioles, trachea, pharynx, bronchi 5. The exchange of air between the human body and the environment is the result of coordinated contractions of the muscles of the rib cage and the: a) lung c) heart b) diaphragm d) pleura 6. Which is the correct pathway for the elimination of urine? a) urethra, ureter, bladder, kidney c) bladder, ureters, kidney, urethra b) kidneys, urethra, bladder, ureter d) kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra 7. The place where gas exchange happens is the: a) nasal cavity c) pleura b) trachea d) alveoli 8. A blockage in a ureter would interfere with: a) urine entering the kidney c) urine leaving the body b) urine entering the bladder d) urea entering the kidney 9. In order for gas exchange to take place, alveoli must be closely associated with: a) capillaries c) veins b) villi d) arteries 10. A structural difference between the trachea and oesophagus which prevents the trachea from collapsing is the presence of: a) smooth muscle c) respiratory cilia b) skeletal muscle d) rings of cartilage Unit 2 xxv DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! No doubts! 11. Which is NOT a metabolic waste in humans? a) carbon dioxide c) salt b) oxygen d) urea e) water 12. What is the main organ of the cardiovascular system? a) trachea c) lungs b) heart d) capillary 13. Which blood vessel contains valves? a) artery b) capillary c) vein 14. What is the function of the aorta? a) To take deoxygenated blood to the body b) To take deoxygenated blood to the lungs c) To take oxygenated blood to the body d) To take oxygenated blood to the heart 15. What is the purpose of the Vena Cava? a) To take deoxygenated blood to the body b) To take deoxygenated blood to the lungs c) To take oxygenated blood to the body d) To take deoxygenated blood to the heart 16. What is the purpose of the septum? a) Separate the left and right hand side of the heart and stop the blood from mixing. b) To carry oxygenated blood to the rest of the body c) Carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs d) Prevent the backflow of blood 17. What is the function of the heart? a) To pump blood around the body b) To help us move c) To aid us in breathing d) To fall in love 18. How many chambers are there in the heart? a) 2 c) 6 b) 4 d) 8 19. What is the name of the valve on the right hand side of the heart that separates the right atrium from the ventricle? a) bicuspid c) ventricular b) tricuspid d) semi-lunar 20. What is the name of the valve that stops the backflow of blood into the left ventricle? a) pulmonary valve c) ventricular valve b) bicuspid valve d) aortic valve Unit 2 xxvi DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET!! No doubts! 21. Name the two circulatory systems: a) Atrial & ventricular b) Oxygenated & Deoxygenated c) Pulmonary & Systemic d) Cardiovascular & Respiratory 22. What four constituents make up blood? a) water, nutrients, cells, oxygen b) oxygen, carbon dioxide, red blood cells, platelets c) plasma, platelets, red blood cells, white blood cells d) haemoglobin, plasma, nutrients, oxygen 23. What does Haemoglobin do? a) Carries oxygen in blood from lungs to tissues b) Carries oxygen in blood from tissues to lungs c) Carries carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs d) Carries carbon dioxide from lungs to tissues 24. Fill in the missing blank: Heart- ______________- Arterioles a) Veins c) Capillaries b) Arteries d) Venules 25. Which of these best describes a vein? a) One cell thick, no valves c) Thick walls & valves b) Small lumen & valves d) Thin walls & valves 26. Why do veins have valves? a) To release blood slowly b) To increase blood pressure c) To stop backflow of blood d) To stop bacteria from entering the blood 27. Which vessel carries blood away from the heart? a) Arteries c) Veins b) Capillaries d) Vessels 28. What supplies the hearts own blood? a) Cardiac veins b) Haemoglobin c) Cardiac valve d) Coronaries arteries 29. Digestion consists of: a) mixing food with water and saliva. b) the absorption of nutrients c) breaking the food down into smaller molecules d) eliminating waste molecules 30. During respiration cells: a) Take carbon dioxide b) Digest food c) Eliminate waste molecules d) Obtain energy for their vital activities. Unit 2 xxvii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Let amylase do its job. Aim: To observe the action of the enzyme amylase on starch. Introduction: Amylase changes starch into a simpler form, which is soluble in water. Amylase is present in our saliva, and begins to act on the starch in our food while it is still in the mouth. Lugol solution (iodine solution) is a test solution that reacts positively with starch. When the colour of Lugol solution changes from yellow to black or dark blue, this indicates the presence of starch. If the solution is yellow, this means no starch is present, having been hydrolyzed by the amylase. Exposure to heat or extreme pH (acid or base) will denature proteins. Enzymes, including amylase, are proteins. If denatured, an enzyme can no longer act as a catalyst for the reaction. Apparatus and Materials: Distilled water Saliva Lugol solution Rubber bands HCl dissolution Test tubes Boiling water bath Test tube rack 1% starch solution Method: 1. Obtain a sample of saliva (1-2 ml). This can be done by chewing a clean rubber band and drooling into a test tube. 2. Mark 3 test tubes A, B and C. Place 10 drops of saliva(no bubbles) in each test tube. 3. Mark a 4th tube D. Place 10 drops of water (not saliva) in it 4. Add 10 drops of 1% starch solution to each tube. 5. Into tube A, add 2 ml of HCl solution. Into tubes B, C and D, add 2 ml of distilled water. Shake the tubes to mix. 6. Place tube B into the boiling water bath. 7. Allow the tubes to stand for approximately 15 minutes. 8. After the 15 minutes, remove tube B from the bath, and place back into the test tube rack. 9. Add 1-2 drops of lugol solution and observe what happens. A black or dark blue colour indicates the presence of starch; the yellow iodine (lugol) colour means no starch remains, having been hydrolyzed by the amylase. Turn over the sheet of paper to answer the questions. Unit 2 xxviii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities OBSERVATIONS: 1. Complete with your observations. Tube A: Starch + saliva treated with HCl (acid) Was the test positive or negative? __________________________ What does this indicate? ___________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Tube B: Starch + saliva and water, treated in a boiling water bath Was the test positive or negative? ________________________ What does this indicate? ___________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Tube C: Starch + saliva Was the test positive or negative? ____________________________ What does this indicate? ___________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Tube D: Starch + water Was the test positive or negative? ____________________________ What does this indicate? ___________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 2. What do you think happens to the activity of amylase in the stomach? 3. Why do you think test-tube D contains only starch? Do not write on this sheet. Answer in class jotter in sentences, you can use your notes if you have to! Unit 2 xxix Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. A change of air. Aim: To demonstrate that the air that we breathe out contains a larger amount of CO2 than the air we breathe in. Introduction: Calcium hydroxide (lime water) reacts with carbon dioxide producing INSOLUBLE calcium carbonate. The reaction is as seen: Calcium Hydroxide + Carbon Dioxide Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 So if you breathe into Lime water, it goes milky because the carbon dioxide in your breath produces INSOLUBLE Calcium Carbonate, but if you continue to breath into it, the solution will go clear again because the Calcium Carbonate reacts with more carbon dioxide and water to form SOLUBLE calcium hydrogen carbonate Apparatus and Materials: Lime water (Calcium Hydroxide) solution Distilled water Test tubes Straws Test tube rack Method: 1. Mark two test tubes A and B. Fill them with 5 ml of lime water solution (calcium hydroxide). 2. Breathe out through a straw into test-tube A. What change do you see? 3. Use a distilled water bottler to pump out air into test-tube B. What change do you see? Let’s try a different experiment: 1. Set up the apparatus as shown In the diagram: 2. Breathe gently in and out of the mouth piece several times. OBSERVATIONS: 1. When you breathe in, does the air go out through A or through B? 2. When you breathe out, does the air come in through A or through B? 3. In which tube did the lime water turn cloudy first? Write down your conclusions for your experiment. Lime water! Unit 2 xxx Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. How do you get oxygen into your body? Aim: To show how breathing works, looking and maybe making a simple apparatus that works as lungs do. Apparatus and Materials: Two balloons Bell jar (old plastic Fanta bottle) Rubber band Plastic straw Plasticine Method: 1. Make up an apparatus similar to the figure. Your own “model lungs”. Make a hole in the top for the straw and make it air-tight with plasticine. Put a balloon on the end of the straw and fix them together. Cut away the bottom of the bottle and stretch a balloon over it for a diaphragm. 2. Pull the rubber sheet (balloon at the end) down and then push it up. Do this a few times and watch what happens to the balloon attached to the straw. Observations: a. When you breathe in, do your lungs get bigger (inflate) or smaller (deflate)? b. What happens to your lungs when you breathe out? c. When you breathe in, does your diaphragm move up or down? d. What happens to it when you breathe out? Now try this activity: 1. Measure the size of your chest with a tape. 2. Now take in a deep breath and measure the size of your chest again. 3. Put your hands on your chest. Breath in and out deeply and slowly. Answer those questions: e. What happens to the size of your chest when you breathe in? f. What happens when you breathe out? g. Which way do your ribs move when you breathe in and out? Unit 2 xxxi Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Problem solving. Problem solving 1. Emma measured her breathing rate (in breaths per minute) at rest and then after light exercise and heavy exercise. Her results are shown in the table below. Breathing rate at rest (breaths per minute) Breathing rate after light exercise (breaths per minute) Breathing rate after heavy exercise (breaths per minute) 16 24 46 1. Copy and complete the sentence below with the correct answer. After Emma exercised her breathing rate increased or decreased 2. Draw three bar graphs to show how Emma’s breathing rate is at rest, after light exercise and after heavy exercise. Problem solving 2 Now Emma wants to go a little bit further and she measures her breathing rate (in breaths per minute) before running a race. When finished she measured her breathing rate again, every minute until her breathing rate returned to normal. Her results are shown in the table below. Time (min) Before exercise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Breathing rate (per min) 16 46 38 31 24 20 17 16 16 What to do: 1. Plot a line graph for the above results on graph paper. 2. Use the vertical axis for breathing rate 3. Use the horizontal axis for time 4. How long did it take Emma’s breathing rate to return to normal? Unit 2 xxxii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Now prepare yourself to do the same as Emma did. A) Draw a similar table to write down your breathing rate. B) Run a race for 5 minutes. When finished, measure your breathing rate every minute until it returns to normal and write it down in the table. C) Plot a line graph with your results and compare them with Emma’s ones. Problem solving 3. The graph shows the activity of 2 enzymes: amylase and pepsin. a) At which pH does pepsin work best? b) Pepsin is made in the stomach. How does the stomach keep its pH just right for pepsin to work best? c) Pepsin breaks down proteins. What will be formed as a result? d) At what pH does amylase work best? e) Amylase breaks down starch. What will be formed as a result? Activity of enzyme f) Amylase works in your mouth. Why is it useful that saliva contains an alkali? pepsin amylase 2 3 4 acid Unit 2 5 6 7 pH 8 9 10 11 12 alkaline xxxiii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. What is in our food? Aim: To know how to test for starch, glucose, protein and fat in food samples. Apparatus and Materials: Lugol solution Biuret solution (A & B) Benedict solution Starch solution Glucose solution Test tubes Test tube rack Distilled water Beaker Bunsen burners Albumin solution (protein) Oil Filter paper Method: First of all let’s test some starch, glucose, protein and fat solution: 1. Mark 3 test tubes A, B and C. 2. Place 4 ml of starch solution in test tube A, add 5 drops of lugol solution. What do you see? Observe and make notes of what happens. 3. Place 4 ml of glucose solution in test tube B, add 10 drops of Benedict’s solution. Heat carefully in a water bath. What do you see? Observe and make notes of what happens. 4. Place 4 ml of albumin solution in test tube C, add 10 drops of biuret solution A and then 10 more drops of biuret solution B. What do you see? Observe and make notes of what happens. 5. Rub some drops of oil onto a piece of filter paper. Hold the paper up to the light. What do you see? Observe and make notes of what happens. Now try testing a few food samples. If the food is a solid you will have to mix it up with a little water first. Record your results in a table like this: Food Starch Glucose Protein fat Milk Now it is your turn. Plan an experiment to compare the amount of water in a piece of plant food with the amount of water in a piece of meat. You can use the sort of apparatus found in your science laboratory. Remember to make it a fair test and check your plan with your teacher before carrying it out. Unit 2 xxxiv Do not write on this sheet Unit 2 Laboratory activities xxxv Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. A model gut. Aim: To understand, through the making of a model, how nutrients are absorbed by gut walls. Apparatus and materials: Cellophane Beaker Test tubes Test tube rack Distilled water Elastic band Syringe or dropper Starch solution Lugol solution Benedict’s solution Glucose solution Method: 1. Make a bag with your cellophane. Make sure it is completely sealed, with no openings, except the top. 2. Use a syringe or a dropper (or even a pipette) to fill the bag with 5 ml of starch solution and 5 ml of glucose solution. 3. Wash the outside of the bag. 4. Support your model gut in a beaker with an elastic band. 5. Fill the beaker with water and leave for 15 minutes. 6. After 15 minutes, test the water for starch and for glucose: Mark 2 test tubes A and B. Place 5 ml of the water of the beaker (outside the model gut) in each test tube. Add 5 drops of lugol solution to test tube A. Add 10 drops of Benedict’s solution to test tube B. What do you see? Observe and make notes of what happens. Questions: A) Which food passed through the “model gut” into the water? B) Which food did not pass through the “model gut” into the water? C) What would have to happen to this food before it could pass through the “model gut”? D) Can you explain why saliva is important? E) Which part of the apparatus was like: Unit 2 i) food in your gut? ii) your gut wall? iii) the blood around your gut? xxxvi Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Plaque attack. Aim: To prove how effective different toothpastes are at killing bacteria. Introduction: In this lab practice you will have to work with bacteria, so you have to take into consideration the following rules: 1. Agar plates must always be opened near a bunser burner. 2. Anything used to touch bacteria or an agar plate must be sterile. 3. The best system to sterilize metal is to “burn it” in a bunsen burner for some seconds, and then wait till it gets cooler. 4. If in doubt, ask your teacher. Material and apparatus: Agar plates Tweezers Bacteria culture Filter paper Sterile syringe and needle Bunsen burner Method: 1. Take an agar plate. Use a marker pen to divide the underside of your plate in four parts. Write a number from 1 to 4 in each division. 2. Turn on the bunser burner and work near it. Use a sterile syringe and needle to scatter 1 ml of bacteria culture on the agar plate. Spread it out evenly. 3. Use tweezers to pick up a disc of filter paper and bunsen some toothpaste on it. 4. Lift the lid of the agar plate (remember near the bunsen burner) and with tweezers carefully place the paper disc onto the agar. Make sure the side of the disc with toothpaste on is in contact with the agar. 5. Repeat this for 3 different toothpastes making a note of each one’s number. 6. Place your agar plate in a warm incubator at 25ºC for 2 days. 7. Wash your hands with soap and warm water. 8. After 2 days, measure the diameter of any clear areas. Sketch your results using a diagram of the plate. Do not open the plate. When finished, return the plate to your teacher. Questions: A) What effects do the different toothpastes have on the bacteria? B) Which toothpaste do you think is best to use and why? C) Many toothpastes are alkaline. How does this help them fight tooth decay? Unit 2 xxxvii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Take your pulse rate. Aim: To learn how to use a stopwatch and a stethoscope. To learn how and where to take your pulse rate. To learn what recovery time is. To learn that a lower heart rate is healthier than a higher one. Introduction: Every time the heart beats it pushes blood into arteries. This makes the arteries swell. You can feel this as a pulse. Your pulse can be felt in the neck, the wrist, and the temple. Material and apparatus: Stethoscope Stopwatch Pulsometer Method: 1. Sit down comfortably. 2. Try to find your pulse in your neck, wrist or temple. 3. Use a stop watch to count how many times your heart beats in 10 seconds. What do you have to do to calculate your beats per minute? 4. To make the results more reliable repeat the process 4 times and calculate the average pulse (beats per minute). 5. Stand up and repeat from step 2. 6. Lie down and repeat from step 2. 7. Write down your results in your lab jotter, in a table like this one: Condition Pulse rate (beats Average pulse rate in in 10 seconds) beats per minute 1 2 3 4 Sitting Standing up Lying down 8. Repeat the whole process but using a pulsometer to take your pulse. 9. Write down your results in your lab jotter, in a table. 10. Answer these questions: A. Which piece of equipment made it easier to take your pulse rate? B. In what type of blood vessels can you feel your pulse? C. Does the position of your body affect your pulse rate? D. What other factors do you think that can affect the pulse rate? Unit 2 xxxviii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Let’s now try and use the pulse rate to determine fitness levels. 1. Open your jotter and write down a table like this one: Condition Pulse rate (beats/10 seconds) Pulse rate (beats/minute) Resting pulse After exercise 1 minute 2 minutes 3 minutes 4 minutes 5 minutes 2. Fill in the table with your resting pulse rate. 3. Run a race for 15 minutes and take your pulse rate just after exercise. 4. Fill in the rest of the table. Use your results to draw a line graph. Use the vertical axis for pulse rate (beats/minute) and the horizontal for condition/time. 5. Answer these questions: A. How much time do you need to recover your resting pulse rate? B. How fit are you? Remember that a short recovery time and a low pulse rate can be a sign of fitness. Use the table to find out how fit you are. Unit 2 Resting pulse rate Level of fitness (beats/minute) Below 50 Outstanding 60 – 70 Good 71 – 80 Over 80 Normal Fair/poor xxxix Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Listen to your heart. Aim: To learn how to use a stethoscope and a sphygmomanometer. To learn how the hear heart sounds and how to measure blood pressure. Introduction: As you know your heart is 2 separate pumps side-by-side. When your heart beats, the muscle squeezes the blood out. The 2 pumps both beat at the same time. You can hear your or your partners’ heartbeat by using a stethoscope. You should hear 2 sounds. Doctors call them lub-dub sounds. The 2 noises are caused by the valves in your heart closing. Blood pressure is the pressure of blood in our arteries. Blood pressure is taken as two readings: 1. The first one is the HIGHER pressure and is caused when the heart contracts and pushes blood into the arteries. 2. The second one is the LOWER pressure and is caused when the heart relaxes and fills with blood. Material and apparatus: Stethoscope Sphygmomanometer Method: Listening to your heart. 1. Take a stethoscope and get used to it. Make sure you know how to listen through it. 2. Put it in the top left of your partner’s back, just below the shoulder blade. 3. Listen carefully to hear the lub-dub sound of a heart beat. 4. Count how many lub-dubs you hear in a minute. Taking your blood pressure 1. Listen to your teacher’s instructions about how to use a sphygmomanometer or a stethoscope and a digital manometer. There are slight differences! 2. Make sure that your partner is sitting comfortably. 3. Take their blood pressure 3 times and take an average. That will be the resting blood pressure. Write down the results. 4. Copy the blood pressure of all the pupils in the class in a table like this; making sure that you separate girls and boys. Name Unit 2 Boy or girl? Higher blood Lower blood pressure pressure Heart beat xl Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities 5. Measure the blood pressure again, but this time make sure that your partner is lying down. 6. Take the blood pressure again Blood pressure Conditions of (mmHg) after exercise, for example Measurement High Low running fast for 3 minutes. Write reading reading down your results in a table like Standing up this one: Lying down After exercise Things to do: 1. Use a calculator to work out the average higher and lower blood pressure of boys. Do the same for girls. Can you see any difference? 2. Plot 4 bar graph as follows: On the first one you will show the higher blood pressure of the boys. Use the horizontal axis for the blood pressure. Use the vertical axis for the number of colleagues that have that blood pressure. What do you observe? On the second one do the same with the lower blood pressure of the boys. What do you observe? On the third and forth ones repeat the process for the girls. 3. What can blood pressure changes depend on? 4. What can high blood pressure changes be caused by? 5. High blood pressure can cause some problems. Name them. 6. Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. Copy them into your jotter. A B Angina Pectoris Instrument used to measure the pressure of the blood in the artery of the arm High Blood Pressure Are diseases of the heart and blood vessels Diastole Increased pressure in the arteries due to stress, diet, cigarette smoking, and aging Systole Blockage of the coronary artery resulting in oxygen deficiency in the heart muscle Cardiovascular Diseases Narrowing of the coronary artery causing an inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart muscle Is the period when the ventricles are filling with Coronary Thrombosis blood. The A-V valve is open and blood flows from the atrium to the ventricle Is the period when the ventricle pumps blood Sphygmomanometer out of the heart. A-V valve closes and the semilunar valve opens Unit 2 xli Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities Lab practice. Heart dissection.∗ Aim: Using a pig heart, to observe the major chambers, valves, and vessels of the heart and to be able to describe the circulation of blood through the heart to the lungs and back and out to the rest of the body. The pig heart is used because it is very similar to the human heart in structure, size, & function. Introduction: Mammals have four-chambered hearts and double circulation. The heart of a mammal has two atria and two completely separated ventricles. The double-loop circulation is similar to amphibians and reptiles, but the oxygen-rich blood is completely separated from oxygen-poor blood. The left side of the heart handles only oxygenated blood, and the right side receives and pumps only deoxygenated blood. These hearts can deliver oxygen to all parts of the body (need for cellular respiration) because: There is no mixing of the two kinds of blood, and there is a double circulation that restores pressure after blood has passed through the lung capillaries. As endotherms, which use heat released from metabolism to warm the body, mammals require more oxygen per gram of body weight than other vertebrates of equal size. Birds and mammals descended from different reptilian ancestors, and their fourchambered hearts evolved independently. This is an example of convergent evolution. Material and apparatus: Dissecting pan, dissecting kit, safety glasses, lab apron, pig heart, & gloves Method: External Structure. 1. Place the heart in a dissecting pan. The heart is now in the pan in the position it would be in a body as you face the body with the portion on the right being the left side of the heart and vice versa. 2. Examine the heart and locate any remains of the thin membrane or pericardium that may still cover the heart. 3. The aorta is clearly visible at the top, with an atrium on either side, while the ventricles are in the bottom left 4. Locate the following chambers of the heart: a. Left atria - upper chamber to your right b. Left ventricle - lower chamber to your right c. Right atria - upper chamber to your left ∗ From http://heartlab.robarts.ca/dissect/dissection.html & http://sps.k12.ar.us/massengale/heart_dissection.htm Unit 2 xlii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities d. Right ventricle - lower chamber to your left 5. While the heart is still in this position in the dissecting pan, locate these blood vessels at the broad end of the heart: • Coronary artery - this blood vessel lies in the groove on the front of the heart. • Pulmonary artery – it can be found curving out of the right ventricle. • Aorta - major vessel located near the right atria & just behind the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Locate the curved part of this vessel known as the aortic arch. • Pulmonary veins - these vessels return oxygenated blood to the left atrium (upper chamber on your right) • Inferior & Superior Vena Cava - these two blood vessels are located on the left of your heart and connect to the right atrium (upper chamber on your left). Use your probe to feel down into the right atrium. These vessels do not contain valves to control blood flow. Internal Structure. 6. Use scissors to cut through the side of the pulmonary artery and continue cutting down into the wall of the right ventricle. Be careful to just cut deep enough to go through the wall of the heart chamber. (Your cutting line should be above & parallel to the groove of the coronary artery.) 7. With your fingers, push open the heart at the cut to examine the internal structure. 8. Locate the right atrium. Notice the thinner muscular wall of this receiving chamber. Find where the inferior & superior vena cava enter this chamber & notice the lack of valves. 9. Locate the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle. This is called the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve The valve consists of three flaps & has This valve allows blood flow from the long fibers of connective tissue called right atrium into the right ventricle chordae tendinae that attach it to papillary muscles of the heart. during diastole (period when the heart is relaxed). When the heart begins to contract (systole phase), ventricular pressure increases until it is greater than the pressure in the atrium causing the tricuspid to close. Use your fingers to feel the thickness of the right ventricle and its smooth lining. 10. Find the septum on the right side of the right ventricle. This thick muscular wall separates the right & left ventricles from each other. 11. Inside the right ventricle, locate the pulmonary artery that carries blood away from this chamber. Find the one-way valve called the pulmonary valve Unit 2 xliii Do not write on this sheet Laboratory activities that controls blood flow away from the right ventricle at the entrance to this blood vessel. 12. Let’s attack the left side of the heart! Using your scissors start a cut on the outside of the left atrium down into the left ventricle cutting toward the apex. 13. Open the heart at this cut with your fingers. Examine the left atrium. Find the openings of the pulmonary veins to the lungs. Observe the one-way, semilunar valves at the entrance to these veins. 14. Inside this chamber, look for the valve that controls blood flow between the left atrium and left ventricle. This valve is called the bicuspid or mitral valve. The bicuspid or mitral valve This valve consists of two flaps & blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle during diastole. 15. Examine the left ventricle. Notice the thickness of the ventricular wall. This heart chamber is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. 16. Using your scissors cut across the left ventricle toward the aorta & continue cutting to expose the valve. Count the three flaps on this valve going from the left ventricle into the aorta and note their half-moon shape (semi-lunar!). This is called the aortic valve. 17. Using scissors, cut through the aorta and examine the inside. Find the hole or coronary artery which carries blood to the heart muscle itself. Do you want to get dirtier? Let’s try a transversal cutting of the heart. 1. If you want to, you can try to sew up your latest cuttings before starting a new one. 2. The first incision is across the ventricles, bisecting the heart in the horizontal plane. This section leaves the mitral valve on the top half of the heart. Unit 2 xliv Support material annexes. Unit 3. In touch with the world Do not write on this sheet Unit 3 Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 i Do not write on this sheet Unit 3 Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 ii Do not write on this sheet Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 Muscles of the Head and Neck∗ Humans have well-developed muscles in the face that permit a large variety of facial expressions. Because the muscles are used to show surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and other emotions, they are an important means of nonverbal communication. Muscles of facial expression include frontalis, orbicularis oris, laris oculi, buccinator, and zygomaticus. These muscles of facial expressions are identified in the illustration below. There are four pairs of muscles that are responsible for chewing movements or mastication. All of these muscles connect to the mandible and they are some of the strongest muscles in the body. Two of the muscles, temporalis and masseter are identified in the illustration above. There are numerous muscles associated with the throat, the hyoid bone and the vertebral column. Only two of the more obvious and superficial neck muscles are identified in the illustration. They are sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. ∗ From http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit4_1_muscle_functions.html Unit 3 iii Do not write on this sheet Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 Muscles of the Trunk The muscles of the trunk include those that move the vertebral column, the muscles that form the thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet. The erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the vertebral column is a large muscle mass that extends from the sacrum to the skull. These muscles are primarily responsible for extending the vertebral column to maintain erect posture. The deep back muscles occupy the space between the spinous and transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae. The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing. The intercostal muscles are located in spaces between the ribs.They contract during forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the ribs during the inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures that have to pass from the thorax to the abdomen. The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection. The wall consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that envelops them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified in the illustration above. The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their associated fascia. Unit 3 iv Do not write on this sheet Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 Muscles of the lower extremity The muscles that move the thigh have their origins on some part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions on the femur. The largest muscle mass belongs to the posterior group, the gluteal muscles, which, as a group, abduct the thigh. The iliopsoas, an anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in the medial compartment adduct the thigh. The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the lower extremity. Muscles that move the leg are located in the thigh region. The quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the leg at the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the quadriceps femoris muscle group, which are used to flex the leg at the knee. The muscles located in the leg that move the ankle and foot are divided into anterior, posterior, and lateral compartments. The tibialis anterior, which dorsiflexes the foot, is antagonistic to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, which plantar flex the foot. Unit 3 v Do not write on this sheet Activity 5. Pupils’ text page 55 Muscles of the upper extremity The muscles of the upper extremity include those that attach the scapula to the thorax and generally move the scapula, those that attach the humerus to the scapula and generally move the arm, and those that are located in the arm or forearm that move the forearm, wrist, and hand. The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the upper extremity. Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratusanterior. The pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuffmuscles connect to the humerus and move the arm. The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles that cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are located along the forearm. Unit 3 vi Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 from http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/name_that_bone.html From http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/name_that_bone.html Unit 3 vii Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Unit 3 viii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Your Spine∗ Your spine is one part of the skeleton that's easy to check out: reach around to the center of your back and you'll feel its bumps under your fingers. The spine lets you twist and bend, and it holds your body upright. It also protects the spinal cord, a large bundle of nerves that sends information from your brain to the rest of your body. The spine is special because it isn't made of one or even two bones: it's made of 26 bones in all! These bones are called vertebrae (say: vur-tuh-bray), and each one is shaped like a ring. There are five types of vertebrae in the spine, and each does a different kind of job: • The first seven vertebrae at the top are called the cervical (say: sir-vih-kul) vertebrae. These bones are in the back of your neck, just below your brain, and they support your head and neck. Your head is pretty heavy, so it's lucky to have help from the cervical vertebrae! • Below the cervical vertebrae are the thoracic (say: thuh-rah-sick) vertebrae, and there are 12 in all. These guys anchor your ribs in place. • Below the thoracic vertebrae are five lumbar (say: lum-bar) vertebrae. • Beneath the lumbar vertebrae is the sacrum (say: say-krum), which is made up of five vertebrae that are joined together. • Finally, all the way at the bottom of the spine is the coccyx (say: cok-sicks), which is made of four fused vertebrae. The bottom sections of the spine are important when it comes to carrying weight and giving you a good center of gravity. So when you pick up a heavy backpack, the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx give you the power. When you dance, skip, and even walk, these parts help keep you balanced. In between each vertebra (the name for just one vertebrae) are small disks made of cartilage. These disks keep the vertebrae from rubbing against one another, and they also act as your spine's natural shock absorbers. When you jump in the air, or twist, the disks give your vertebrae the cushioning they need. ∗ From http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit3_1_bone_functions.html Unit 3 ix DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Your Ribs Your heart, lungs, and liver are all very important, and luckily you've got ribs to keep them safe. Ribs act like a cage of bones around your chest. It's easy to feel this cage by running your fingers along the sides and front of your body, a few inches below your heart. If you breathe in deeply, you can easily feel your ribs right in the front of your body, too. Some thin kids can even see a few of their ribs right through their skin. Your ribs come in pairs, and the left and right sides of each pair are exactly the same. Most people have 12 pairs of ribs, but some people are born with one or more extra ribs, and some people might have one pair less. All 12 pairs of ribs attach in the back to the spine, where they are held in place by the thoracic vertebrae. The first seven pairs of ribs attach in the front to the sternum (say: stur-num), a strong bone in the center of your chest that holds those ribs in place. The remaining sets of ribs don't attach to the sternum directly. The next two or three pairs are held on with cartilage to the ribs above them. The very last two sets of ribs are called floating ribs because they aren't connected to the sternum or the ribs above them. But don't worry; these ribs can't ever float away. Like the rest of the ribs, they are securely attached to the spine in the back. Unit 3 x DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Your Skull Your skull protects the most important part of all, the brain. You can feel your skull by pushing on your head, especially at the back a few centimetres above your neck. The skull is actually made up of different bones. Some of these bones protect your brain, others make up the structure of your face. If you touch beneath your eyes, you can feel the ridge of the bone that forms the hole where your eye sits. And although you can't see it, the smallest bone in your whole body is in your head, too. The stirrup bone behind your eardrum is only .2.6 to 3.3 millimeters long! Want to know something else? Your lower jawbone is the only bone in your head you can move. It opens and closes to let you talk and chew food. Your skull is pretty cool, but it's changed since you were a baby. All babies are born with spaces between the bones in their skulls. This allows the bones to move, close up, and even overlap as the baby goes through the birth canal. As the baby grows, the space between the bones slowly closes up and disappears, and special joints called sutures (say: soo-churs) connect the bones. Unit 3 xi DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Your Hands As you sit and type at the keyboard, while you swing on a swing, even when you pick up your lunch, you're using the bones in your fingers, hand, wrist, and arm. Each arm is attached to a shoulder blade or scapula (say: sca-pyuhluh), a large triangular bone on the upper back corner of each side of the rib cage. The arm is made up of three bones: the humerus (say: hyoo-muh-rus), which is above your elbow, and the radius (say: ray-dee-us) and ulna (say: ul-nuh), which are below the elbow. Each of these bones is wider at the ends and skinnier in the middle, to help give it strength where it meets another bone. At the end of the radius and ulna are eight smaller bones that make up your wrist. Although these bones are small, they can really move! Twist your wrist around or wave and you'll see how the wrist can move. The center part of your hand is made up of five separate bones. Each finger on your hand has three bones, except for your thumb, which has two. So between your wrists, hands, and all your fingers, you've got a grand total of 54 bones - all ready to help you grasp things, write your name, pick up the phone, or throw a softball! Unit 3 xii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Your Legs Sure, arm, wrist, hand, and finger bones are great for picking up the phone, but how are you supposed to run to answer it? Well, with the bones of the legs and feet! Your legs are attached to a circular group of bones called your pelvis. The pelvis is a bowl-shaped structure that supports the spinal column. It is made up of the two large hip bones in front and behind are the sacrum and the coccyx. The pelvis acts as a tough ring of protection around parts of the digestive system, the urinary system, and parts of the reproductive system. Your leg bones are very large and strong to help support the weight of your body. The bone that goes from your pelvis to your knee is called the femur (say: fee-mur), and it's the longest bone in your body. At the knee, there's a triangular-shaped bone called the patella, or kneecap that protects the knee joint. Below the knee are two other leg bones: the tibia (say: tih-bee-uh) and the fibula (say: fih-byuh-luh). Just like the three bones in the arm, the three bones in the leg are wider at the ends than in the middle to give them strength. The ankle is a bit different from the wrist; it has three larger bones and four smaller ones. But the main part of the foot is similar to the hand, with five bones. Each toe has three tiny bones, except for your big toe, which has just two. This brings the bone total in both feet and ankles to 52! Most people don't use their toes and feet for grabbing stuff or writing, but they do use them for two very important things: standing and walking. Without all the bones of the foot working together, it would be impossible to balance properly. The bones in the feet are arranged so the foot is almost flat and a bit wide, to help you stay upright. Unit 3 xiii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET Activity 8. Pupils’ text page 58 Taking Care of Bones Your bones help you out every day so make sure you take care of them. Here are some tips: Protect those skull bones (and your brain inside!) by wearing a helmet for bike riding and other sports. When you use a skateboard, in-line skates, or a scooter, be sure to add wrist supports and elbow and knee pads. Your bones in these places will thank you if you have a fall! If you play a sport like football, soccer, or ice hockey, always wear all the right equipment. Never play on a trampoline. Many kids end up with broken bones from jumping on them. Broken bones can eventually heal, but it takes a long time and isn't much fun while you wait. Strengthen your skeleton by drinking milk and eating other dairy products (like low-fat cheese, frozen yogurt, and ice cream). They all contain calcium, which helps bones harden and become strong. Be kind to your bones, and they will treat you right! Unit 3 xiv Label the brain! Unit 3 xv DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Label the brain! Cerebellum - the part of the brain below the back of the cerebrum. It regulates balance, posture, movement, and muscle coordination. Corpus Callosum - a large bundle of nerve fibres that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres. In the lateral section, it looks a bit like a "C" on its side. Frontal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the top, front regions of each of the cerebral hemispheres. They are used for reasoning, emotions, judgment, and voluntary movement. Medulla Oblongata - the lowest section of the brainstem (at the top end of the spinal cord); it controls automatic functions including heartbeat, breathing, etc. Occipital Lobe of the Cerebrum - the region at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that contains the centers of vision and reading ability (located at the back of the head). Parietal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the middle lobe of each cerebral hemisphere between the frontal and occipital lobes; it contains important sensory centers (located at the upper rear of the head). Pituitary Gland - a gland attached to the base of the brain (located between the Pons and the Corpus Callosum) that secretes hormones. Pons - the part of the brainstem that joins the hemispheres of the cerebellum and connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum. It is located just above the Medulla Oblongata. Spinal Cord - a thick bundle of nerve fibers that runs from the base of the brain to the hip area, running through the spine (vertebrae). Temporal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the region at the lower side of each cerebral hemisphere; contains centers of hearing and memory (located at the sides of the head). Unit 3 xvi Label a neuron! Unit 3 xvii Nervous system summary! Nervous System Summary Messages arriving at the CNS from every part of the body, keep the ______ informed of what is going on around it. There are __________________, one carries messages ________________to the CNS, and are called __________________. The other, a motor nerve (Motor = movement) takes nerve impulses to a_____________, which responds in the way that is needed. For example, if you burn your finger, the motor nerve will make you pull your finger out of the flame. This is called a________________. The largest part of the brain, the _______________is in 2 halves (hemispheres) the ________ hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the ________. The cerebrum is responsible for sight, speech, personality, hearing, intelligence,… The medulla controls all unconscious behaviour, such as__________________. This is why if you become unconscious you carry on breathing. Excess alcohol can act on the medulla, so your brain forgets to stimulate breathing and you can die. The _______________ co-ordinates muscular movements. Use words from the list to complete the text. The first one is already done. CNS brain right right Unit 3 cerebrum muscle or gland cerebellum reflex action two main kinds of nerves breathing and heart rates from the sense organs sensory nerves xviii Skeletal and Muscular systems summary! Skeletal and Muscular Systems Summary The main uses of the skeleton are for support, ______________ and protection of internal organs __________, is a mixture of flexible _____________, and hard_____________, mainly calcium phosphate. _________ are where two bones meet. Bones are held together at the joints by _____________. The _____________ types of joint are _________ e.g. knee and elbow, (allows movement back and forward) & ___________________ e.g. shoulder and hip (allows rotation in most directions). Muscle work in opposing ________ (antagonistic) so that they can pull in different or opposite directions. ____________(shortens) while the other relaxes (lengthens). ____________ attach the muscles to bones. A muscle fibre is made up two types of protein filaments; thick ones called ___________ and thin ones called ________. There are three types of muscles: ___________, __________, and _________. The longest bone in our body is the __________. Use words from the list to complete the text. The first one is already done. Support proteins pairs joints hinge actin bone Unit 3 cardiac myosin smooth femur skeletal movement tendons minerals one contracts ligaments two main ball and socket xix Skeletal system word find! From http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/skeletal_word_find.html From http://kidshealth.org/kid/misc/skeletal_word_find.html Unit 3 xx Maze! Maze. Help poor skeleton to find the way to his hat. Once finished glue it in your jotter. Maze. Help poor skeleton to find the way to his hat. Once finished glue it in your jotter. Unit 3 xxi Skeletal and Muscular crossword! 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Clues: DOWN: 1. Type of joint found in the shoulder and hip. 2. As one muscle ____, the other relaxes. 4. Type of muscle that is voluntary and striated. 8. Produced by bones. 10. Occurs when a bone is forced out of its joint. 11. Only type of tissue that is able to contract. 14. Mineral found in bone; Ca. Unit 3 ACROSS: 3. Flexible connective tissue that makes up our nose and ears. 5. ____ hold bones together. 6. Type of joint found in the knee and elbow. 7. Place where bones come together. 9. ____ attach bones to muscles. 12. Mineral found in bone; P. 13. One of the arm bones, below the elbow. 15. Muscle tissue found in the heart. 16. Type of muscle that is involuntary and not striated. xxii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Brain, Muscles and Bones quiz! Open your jotter and answer those questions. Write in full sentences. Copy the question before answering it. 1. What type of nerves carry messages from the senses? 2. What kind of nerve carries signals back to a muscle or gland? 3. What part of the brain controls the breathing rate? 4. What part of the brain controls memory and intelligence? 5. What part of the brain controls balance? 6. What side of the brain controls your left hand? 7. What kind of action makes you quickly move your hand out of a flame? 8. What are the main functions of the skeleton? 9. Which is the largest bone in the human body? 10. What bones protect the heart and lungs? 11. What bony structure protects the brain? 12. Name a hinge joint. 13. Name a ball and socket type joint. 14. What holds bones together at the joints? 15. What attaches the muscles to the bones? 16. What happens to a muscle when it contracts? 17. What happens to a muscle when it relaxes? 18. Where would you find the biceps muscles? 19. Where would you find the radius and ulna bones? 20. Where would you find the tibia and fibula bones? 21. What do you call one spinal bone? Unit 3 xxiii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! In touch with the world recap quiz! DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below as completely as possible. Answer the questions using complete sentences. You may use diagrams or pictures to supplement your answers. 1. Look at the illustration. Structure 2 in the diagram is the a. Spinal cord c. cerebellum. b. medulla d. cerebrum 2. Look at the illustration. Structure 1 is the a. Spinal cord c. cerebellum. b. medulla d. cerebrum Complete each statement. 3. The part of the nervous system that does not include the spinal cord and brain is called the ____________________ nervous system. 4. A sudden, involuntary movement in response to a stimulus is called a(n) ….... 5. The cells that carry messages throughout the nervous system are called ….... 6. Neurons that carry impulses from the sense organs to the brain and spinal cord are called __________________________________ neurons. 7. The ______________ is the biggest part of a neuron, and consist of the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm. 8. Neurons that carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles or glands are called _________________________________ neurons. 9. A neuron may have dozens or even hundreds of _________________ but usually only one __________________. 10. A Neuron consists of three main parts, list them: A.__________________________________________________ B.__________________________________________________ C.__________________________________________________ 11. What are the spaces between adjacent neurons called? 12. What are the two major divisions of the nervous system? A.______________________________________________________________ B._____________________________________________________________ 13. Some axons are surrounded by an insulating structure called a _________. Unit 3 xxiv DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! In touch with the world recap quiz! 14. Draw the structure of a typical neuron and label it with all its parts: Dendrite; Cell body; Nucleus; Axon; Myelin Sheath; Node of Ranvier; Schwann’s cell; Axon Terminal. 15. Messages are carried across synapses by _________________________. 16. Copy and complete the following diagram∗: 17. Thick filaments of skeleton muscle are composed of a protein called ………. 18. Which muscle tissue is described by the following words; involuntary; single large nucleus, and are not striated. ______________. 19. Thin filaments of skeleton muscle are composed of a protein called ………... 20. Which muscle tissue is described by the following words; voluntary, striated, large cells with more than one nucleus. ________________. 21. Muscles are joined to bones by …….. 22. What type of muscle tissue is found only in the heart? 23. What are the three types of muscle tissue and the functions of each? 24. MATCHING: Match the two columns. membrane covering the outside of bones Skeletal system connective tissue that connect bones to bones Periosteum made up of bones, joints and connective tissue Ligaments connective tissues that connect muscles to bone Tendons places where bones meet Joints 25. What mineral gives bone their strength? 26. Each bone is surrounded by a tough membrane called the …………... ∗ From http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/biologyII.html Unit 3 xxv DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! In touch with the world recap quiz! 27. The junction of two bones is called a (an) __________________________. 28. Bones are held together at the joints by _________________. 29. The heart and lungs are protected by the _____________________. 30. The rib cage is formed by ribs. They go from the backbone and they join together in the front at the bone called the __________________. 31. Identify each trait as a characteristic of one of the three types of muscle tissue. A. The nervous system controls it. B. It is a striated and involuntary muscle. C. It is found in many internal organs, but not the heart. D. It regulates the width of blood vessels. E. It is a striated and voluntary muscle. F. It regulates the contractions of the digestive system. G. The muscle that makes up the heart. H. It is an unstriated and involuntary muscle. 32. Copy and complete the following diagram∗: ∗ From http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/biologyII.html Unit 3 xxvi DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! No doubts! Read all these questions carefully and choose the correct answer. Write it down in your jotter. 1. The periosteum is a section of the bone that contains a) blood vessels b) osteocytes c) spongy bone d) red bone marrow 2. Which of the following types of muscle tissues is found in the walls of the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels? a) cardiac muscle b) smooth muscle c) skeletal muscle d) voluntary muscle 3. Which of the following types of muscle tissues is responsible for moving most parts of the body? a) cardiac muscle b) smooth muscle c) skeletal muscle d) involuntary muscle 4. Muscles move bones by a) puling them b) pushing them c) stretching back and forth d) relaxing 5. An example of a hinge joint is a) a joint in your elbow b) a parieto-temporal joint c) pivot joint d). none of the above 6. Which type of joint allows the shoulder to make circular motions? a) pivot joint b) angular joint c) hinge joint d) ball-and-socket joint 7. Information is carried from the central nervous system to a muscle by a) sensory neurons. c) afferent neurons. b) reticular neurons. d) motor neurons. 8. Sensory neurons transmit messages a) from the central nervous system to a muscle or gland. b) from the brain to the spinal cord. c) from the environment to the spinal cord or brain. d) inside the brain. 9. Motor neurons transmit messages a) from the environment to the brain. b) from the environment to the spinal cord. c) from the spinal cord to the brain. d) from the central nervous system to a muscle or gland 10. The peripheral nervous system a) is not linked to the central nervous system. b) connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Unit 3 c) consists of the cerebellum and spinal cord. d) is composed only of motor neurons. xxvii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! No doubts! 11. The autonomic nervous system controls a) reflexes. b) voluntary movement. c) involuntary functions of the internal organs. d) locomotion 12. A reflex a) may involve only two or three neurons b) is not under controlled consciously. c) is not learnt. d) all of the above. 13. Extensions at one end of a neuron’s body that receive an impulse are called a) axons. b) synapses. c) cell bodies. d) dendrites. 14. The central nervous system consists of a) the brain and spinal cord. b) the cerebrum and cerebellum. c) the spinal nerves only. d) the cerebrum and spinal cord 15. The voluntary functions of the nerve system are controlled by the: a) cerebrum b) cerebellum c) medulla d) spinal cord 16. A muscle fibre is made up of millions of two protein filaments called: a) neurotransmitter & myosin b) myosin & actin c) actin & tendons d) tendons & ligaments 17. Which one is NOT a muscle? a) pectoralis b) humerus c) biceps d) quadriceps 18. Which is the longest bone in your body? a) rib b) tibia c) femur d) ulna 19. Which one is NOT a bone? a) sternum b) fibula c) pelvis d) deltoid 20. What is the function of bone marrow? a) Make blood cells b) Make proteins c) Give strength to the bone d) Make the bone flexible 21. The tissue that connect bones together in a joint is: a) tendons b) myosin Unit 3 c) ligaments d) joint-protein xxviii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Laboratory activities Lab practice. Knee Jerk Reflex (Patellar Reflex)∗ Aim: To know how a typical reflex action works. Apparatus and Materials: None Method: The knee jerk reflex is one that you may have had tested at a check up at the doctor's. In this test, the doctor hits your knee at a spot just below your knee cap (patella) and your leg kicks out. Try it! 1. Have a partner sit with their legs crossed so that their leg can swing freely. 2. Hit their leg just below the knee with the side of your hand. DO NOT USE A HAMMER!!!! The leg will kick out immediately (if you hit the right place). 3. Repeat steps 1 & 2, but this time do it while your partner is doing a mental process, for example solving a math problem or reading a text. The knee jerk reflex is called a monosynaptic reflex because there is only one synapse in the circuit needed to complete the reflex. It only takes about 50 milliseconds between the tap and the start of the leg kick. That is fast! The tap below the knee causes the thigh muscle to stretch. Information is then sent to the spinal cord. After one synapse inside of the spinal cord, the information is sent back out to the muscle...and there you have the reflex. Answer these questions: 1. Draw a diagram of the patellar reflex action. Try to show presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron, the spinal cord, the muscle, the leg,… 2. Can you see any difference in the speed of the reaction if the person is doing a mental activity or not? Try to explain why. ∗ From http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chreflex.html Unit 3 xxix DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Laboratory activities Lab practice. Blink Reflex. Our reflexes really protect us. Another demonstration of these “built-in” (not learnt) capabilities is the blink reflex. Aim: To know how a typical reflex action works. Materials: • Cotton balls (or rolled-up paper towels) • A transparent barrier (a wire screen, plastic or glass window) Method: 1. Have a student stand behind a see-through barrier like a window or a wire screen. 2. Throw a cotton ball at the person. Did they blink? Probably. This is the blink reflex and serves to protect our eyes from damage. Did you know? People typically blink about 15 times per minute. If you are awake for 16 hours each day, then you blink approximately 14,400 each day! (Source: Schiffman, H.R., Sensation and Perception. An Integrated Approach, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2001) Unit 3 xxx DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Laboratory activities Lab practice. How Fast are You? Aim: To measure your response time to something that you see. Introduction: This reaction time experiment requires visual information (the movement of the ruler) to travel to your brain. Then your brain sends a motor command ("grab that falling ruler") to the muscles of your arm and hand. If all goes well, you catch the ruler!! Material: Ruler, calculator Method: 1. Get a ruler 2. Hold the ruler near the end (highest number) and let it hang down. 3. Have a partner put his or her hand at the bottom of the ruler and have them ready to grab the ruler (however, they should not be touching the ruler). 4. Tell your partner that you will drop the ruler sometime within the next 5 seconds and that they are supposed to catch the ruler as fast as they can after it is dropped. 5. Record the level (centimetres) at which they catch the ruler (you can convert the distance into reaction time with the table below). 6. Test the same person 3 to 5 times (vary the time of dropping the ruler within the 5 seconds "drop-zone" so your partner cannot guess when you will drop the ruler). Here is a table to convert the distance on the ruler to reaction time. For example, if you catch the ruler at the 20 cm mark, then your reaction time is equal to 0.20 seconds (200 ms). Remember that there are 1,000 milliseconds (ms) in 1 second. Questions and Comparisons: Distance 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm 25.5 cm 30.5 cm 43 cm 61 cm 79 cm 99 cm 123 cm 175 cm Time 0.10 sec (100 ms) 0.14 sec (140 ms) 0.17 sec (170 ms) 0.20 sec (200 ms) 0.23 sec (230 ms) 0.25 sec (250 ms) 0.30 sec (300 ms) 0.35 sec (350 ms) 0.40 sec (400 ms) 0.45 sec (450 ms) 0.50 sec (500 ms) 0.60 sec (600 ms) A. Try the experiment in dim light. Does your reaction time increase, decrease or stay the same? Can you explain your results? B. Test the whole class. Who is fastest? C. Compare boys vs. girls. On average, are the boys or girls faster? D. Compare different ages. Who is the fastest? older students or younger students? E. Compare the scores after practice. Does reaction time improve with practice? F. Compare kids' scores vs. parents' scores. Who is faster? G. Test the whole school!! H. Test the whole city!!................you get the idea. Unit 3 xxxi DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Laboratory activities Want to work harder? If you want to be more precise with your calculations, use the following formulas: Formula 1 Formula 2 Formula 1 provides you with the distance an object will fall in a given amount of time. By rearranging Formula 1 into Formula 2, you can get the amount of time it takes an object to fall a certain distance...that's what you want to find out. All you have to do is replace “y” withthe distance (in either centimeters or inches) that the ruler fell into Formula 2 - this will give you the reaction time. In the formulas, t = time (in seconds); y = distance (in cm); g = 980 cm/sec2 (acceleration due to gravity). Unit 3 xxxii DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Laboratory activities Lab practice. Test your reaction time! Aim: To measure your response time to different stimuli. Material: Computer, calculator Method: This exercise consists of four internet experiments with the aim to test how fast you respond to different situations. 1. Turn on your computer and open Netscape navigator. (some of the experiments do not work on Explorer) 2. Go into this page: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/reacttime.html 3. Follow the instructions on the screen 4. Remember to do the experiment 5 times and to calculate the average. 5. Write down your results in your jotter. 6. At the end of the class copy the results of the rest of the pupils. 7. Repeat from step 2 for the other experiments. Here are the web pages you have to go to to do the activity. Hit-the-dot http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/dottime.html Colorful reaction time tester http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/backtime.html Check boxes http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/boxes.html Unit 3 xxxiii Support material annexes. Final activities DO NOT WRITE ON THIS SHEET! Final activities! 20 Little Known Facts About The Human Body∗ 1. A human being loses an average of 40 to 100 strands of hair a day. 2. A cough releases an explosive charge of air that moves at speeds of up to 100 km/h. 3. Every time you lick a stamp, you're consuming 1/10 of a calorie. 4. A fetus acquires fingerprints at the age of three months. 5. A sneeze can exceed the speed of 160 km/h. 6. Every person has a unique tongue print. 7. According to German researchers, the risk of heart attack is higher on Monday than any other day of the week. 8. After spending hours working at a computer display, look at a blank piece of white paper. It will probably appear pink. 9. An average human drinks about 60.000 litres of water in a lifetime. 10. A fingernail or toenail takes about 6 months to grow from base to tip. 11. An average human scalp has 100,000 hairs. 12. It takes 17 muscles to smile and 43 to frown. 13. Babies are born with 300 bones, but by adulthood we have only 206 in our bodies. 14. Beards are the fastest growing hairs on the human body. If the average man never trimmed his beard, it would be nearly 10 meters long by the end of his life. 15. By the age of sixty, most people will have lost half of their taste buds. By the time you turn 70, your heart will have beaten some two-and-a-half billion times (taking an average of 70 beats per minute.) 16. Each square centimetre of human skin consists of one meter of blood vessels. 17. Every human has spent about half an hour as a single cell. 18. Every square centimetre of the human body has an average of 5 million bacteria on it. 19. Fingernails grow faster than toenails. 20. Humans shed about 600,000 particles of skin every hour - about 500 grams a year. By 70 years of age, an average person will have lost up to 50 kilograms of skin. ∗ From http://www.teach-nology.com/ Final activities i