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Sociology Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 1/2) Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Contents Guide to teaching and learning pack 2 Statement of standards for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 3 Introduction to unit and teaching & learning approaches 6 Sociological vs. common sense explanations Theory and applications 9 Primary and secondary sources Methods of research: Resources Scottish Further Education Unit Functionalism Marxism Feminism Social Action 19 27 31 39 58 Primary: 65 Questionnaires 73 Structured and Unstructured Interviews/ surveys 86 Participant Observation 97 Non-participant observation 104 Secondary: 111 Official Statistics 111 Written evidence 115 Other visual evidence 123 129 1 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Guide to teaching and learning pack This teaching and learning pack is designed to aid the practitioner in the delivery of Sociology at Intermediate 1 and 2 levels. This pack includes: a general introduction to the unit a suggested programme of work ready-to-use material for each of the areas covered in the unit student activities with accompanying tutor notes on each topic covered in the unit * a suggested reading list, which covers the main elements within each topic, based on two basic sociology textbooks. This list can be used as a tutor or student resource #. * Please note that these materials will not cover the full ‘hour age’ of the whole unit, nor will they cover every item in the outcomes, PCs, or range statements: it is assumed that teachers and lecturers will want to use some of the time for exposition and discussion, and will supplement this pack with materials devised for specific groups. # Suggested reading for this unit is taken from 2 major sociology textbooks. Material in these textbooks is designed for new students of sociology, and for those on introductory courses. The suggested texts are: Sociology Alive (2nd edition) Stephen Moore Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd. Sociology a new approach (3rd edition) Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald Causeway Press. The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements document and advice given in the Subject Guide. Lecturers and teachers may wish to amend some of the material to suit their particular requirements, In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of student-centred activities. These are suggested activities only and can be adapted to suit individual, age and group requirements. A choice of topics has been given in some of the activities where it is considered that groups may have different interests and sensitivities. The pack is designed to facilitate bi-level and single-level teaching and learning. Some material is designed to be used with both levels and some material has been designed for each level. If material is differentiated it can still be used within one classroom situation if necessary. Specific details are given in the tutor guides to particular activities. The term ‘student’ will be used throughout the unit to denote the learner. Scottish Further Education Unit 2 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach National Unit Specification: Statement of Standards Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 1) Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Outcome 1 Describe how key sociological theories contribute to an understanding of human social behavior. Performance Criteria a) Make basic distinctions between common sense and sociological knowledge clearly and correctly. b) Correctly identify and describe key features of sociological theories, using relevant examples. Outcome 2 Describe the main methods of sociological research. Performance Criteria a) Describe primary methods of research correctly. b) Describe secondary methods of research correctly. Evidence Requirements for the Unit The Appendix details the content/context for this Unit. Evidence Requirements apply to the Unit as a whole and, therefore, apply holistically to all Outcomes of the Unit. Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance Criteria to achieve the Unit. The assessment should take the form of an unseen, closed book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It should be taken on a single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the form of a range of restricted response type questions, and should make use of stimulus material as a tool with which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed. Candidates will be assessed on two from a choice of four theories. Sampling Assessment of the Unit should incorporate appropriate sampling of the Unit content. For example, if a candidate demonstrates knowledge and understanding of two examples of primary research methods, and one example of a secondary research method, from a given list, it is inferred that he/she can demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the other research methods. Any requirement for reassessment will be based on a different sample from the range of Scottish Further Education Unit 3 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach content, where appropriate. The theories and research methods should be covered prior to candidates being asked to prepare for assessment. Candidates should not be informed prior to the Unit assessment, which research methods they will be assessed on. Achievement can be decided by the use of a cut-off score. The National Assessment Bank items illustrate the standard that should be applied and also the nature and extent of the sample to be used. If a centre wishes to design its own assessments for this Unit, they should be of a comparable standard. Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 2) Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Outcome 1 Explain how key sociological theories contribute to an understanding of human social behavior. Performance Criteria a) Distinguish between common sense and sociological knowledge clearly and correctly. b) Correctly identify and describe key features of sociological theories, using relevant examples. c) Analyse the relative similarities and differences of different sociological theories. Outcome 2 Analyse the main methods of sociological research. Performance Criteria a) Describe primary methods of research correctly. b) Describe secondary methods of research correctly. c) Analyse the relative advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research methods. Evidence Requirements for the Unit The Appendix details the content/context for this Unit. Evidence Requirements apply to the Unit as a whole and, therefore, apply holistically to all Outcomes of the Unit. Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance Criteria of the Unit for it to be achieved. The assessment should take the form of an unseen, closed book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It should be taken on a single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the form of a range of restricted response type questions, and should make use of stimulus material as a tool with which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed. Sampling Scottish Further Education Unit 4 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Assessment of the Unit should incorporate appropriate sampling of Unit content. For example, if a candidate demonstrates knowledge, understanding and analysis of two of the theories, she/he should also be able to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and analysis of the remaining theories. Similarly, if the candidate demonstrates knowledge and understanding and provides an evaluation of the relative advantages and disadvantages of three examples of primary research methods, and one example of a secondary research method, it can be inferred that this can be done for the remaining research methods. Any requirement for reassessment will be based upon a different sample from the range of content, where appropriate. All theories and research methods should be covered prior to candidates being asked to prepare for assessment. Candidates should not be informed prior to the Unit assessment which theories and methods they will be assessed on. Achievement can be decided by the use of a cut-off score. The National Assessment Bank items illustrate the standard that should be applied and also the nature and extent of the sample to be used. If a centre wishes to design its own assessments for this Unit, they should be of a comparable standard Scottish Further Education Unit 5 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Introduction to the Unit and Learning and Teaching Approaches Introduction to Unit This unit is organised with ready-to-use materials and supplemented with a reading list for the main elements of the unit. The material is organised into discrete areas, which include the following: 1. Sociological versus common sense explanations. 2. Key features of main sociological theories with similarities and differences between and applications: a. Functionalism b. Marxism c. Feminism d. Social Action. 3. Primary and secondary sources of data collection. The student is required to know the basic difference between these two sources of data collection. 4. Some of the main methods of research. Teaching and learning should cover: the main features of the method the uses of that method the advantages and disadvantages of the method. The statement of standards covers some of the main methods used by sociologists although it is not an exhaustive list. The methods given reflect the broad range of methods available to sociologists. In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that two methods for Intermediate 1 and three methods for Intermediate 2 must be chosen from: questionnaires unstructured and structured interviews/surveys participant observation non-participant observation case studies: longitudinal studies and comparative studies. These methods have not been strictly categorised as primary sources as some of these elements may also be secondary sources. In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that from the second list, which are secondary sources, one method for Intermediate 1 and two methods for Intermediate 2 must be chosen from: official statistics written evidence other visual evidence. The material can be used in any order. It is designed for differential learning for Intermediate 1 and 2 levels. Differentiation is in layout and level of complexity for some activities. Where differentiation occurs this is noted in the tutor guides to each section. Scottish Further Education Unit 6 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach As well as accommodating differential learning levels, some activities have also been given alternative activities to cater for different age and interest groups. It is up to the discretion of the tutor, which they use. For example, the questionnaire on smoking may be seen as too controversial for some groups and therefore tutors/students may use one of the alternatives on computers or magazines. Learning and teaching approaches Methods can be a fairly dry aspect of sociological study. It is also probable that, for most students, the material discussed will be new. It is suggested therefore that each method is grounded in as many practical activities as is possible and feasible within the given time scales. It would also be useful to illustrate the methods with examples of research that have been carried out. This would engage the interest of the student and will also be a good preparation for those intending to take sociology to a higher level. It is suggested that a range of exercises involving individual and group activities be supplemented with tutor exposition using OHTs, student reading and class discussion. Concurrent with the advice given in the 1998 Spring Supplement of the Subject Guide, the following sequence of teaching is suggested for this unit with approximate time scales. The activities, handouts, and exercises in this teaching and learning pack reflect the proportion of ‘hour age’ given to each part of the curriculum. However, this is not mandatory and time allocation, sequence of delivery and use of teaching materials are completely at the discretion of the practitioner and centre. Scottish Further Education Unit 7 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unit plan: Introduction to Sociology: Methods Intermediate 1 and 2 General aspects of unit Aspect Induction Time allocation 1 hours Assessment 2 hours Reassessment 2 hours Rationale Includes: introduction to topic, programme of work, arrangements for assessment and reassessment. This could be 3 hours for end of unit assessment, or 2 x 1.5 hours, or 3 x 1 hour. It is thought that 3 hours would be adequate as candidates need only re-sit parts of assessment. Content Suggested order, time allocation, rationale, and relationship between outcomes and PCs. Outcome & PCs Outcome 1(a) Sociological vs. common sense Relation to other Time allocation Outcomes/PCs Outcome 1 3 hours Outcome 1 (b) and Outcome 1 (c) key features of sociological theories, similarities and differences and applications 16 hours Outcome 2 (a) and Outcome 2 (b) primary and secondary sources and methods of research and advantages and disadvantages 16 hours Scottish Further Education Unit Rationale Gives student an idea of what sociological explanations are. To make student aware of key sociological theories, similarities and differences between them and applications of them. Allows approx. 3/4 hours for each theory Sources, main methods, and the way they are used, advantages and disadvantages. Allows approx. 3 hours for each method. 8 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological vs. Common Sense Explanations Tutor Guide to Student Activity Related to Sociological vs. Common Sense Explanations The purpose of this activity is to enable the student to become aware that differences between sociological and common sense explanations arise from the fact that sociological explanation is based on study and research whilst common sense explanations are based on personal experience, taken-for-granted assumptions and commonly held beliefs. Subsumed within the notion of common-sense explanations is what is termed 'individualistic' or 'naturalistic' explanations. This activity relates to defining distinctions between these types of explanation and sociological explanation. It is designed as a stand-alone activity provided some suitable explanation is given beforehand on the particular nature of sociological explanation. Three OHTs with general definitions of different types of explanations are provided and have been designed to be used at the end of the activity, although some tutors may prefer to start with these by way of introduction. Students are required to read the explanations given for unemployment and drug misuse and to answer the questions. The activity is best carried out in a small group or pairs with one person providing the feedback at the plenary session. The 2 OHTs outlining some of the factors involved in sociological explanations of body shape and drug misuse can be used as a summary of these examples. The plenary session can also be used to explore other examples such as women’s position in society, suicide, and political or industrial unrest. It is envisaged that the exercise will take 15 - 20 mins with 15 - 20 mins for feedback. The accompanying OHTs can be used at the end to summarise the main points of individualistic, naturalistic and sociological explanations and differences between them. It should be stressed that some individualistic explanations may in fact occasionally coincide with the truth. They are, however, non-sociological in how they were arrived at and their occasional coinciding with sociological evidence is accidental. In particular, the notion of objectivity and the use of research evidence to support sociological theory are essential to sociological explanation. Exploring ‘naturalistic’ explanations can also help students to think about the narrow mindedness of ‘naturalistic’ explanations. For example, the example of wanting to be slim for reasons other than health as ‘natural’ can be challenged by evidence from history and other cultures where body shape is viewed very differently. Also, students can be alerted to the fact that deeming some social phenomena 'natural' can have the consequence of considering alternatives to be 'unnatural' and inferior. Scottish Further Education Unit 9 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological vs. Common Sense Explanations Worksheet Read the following passages, which each discuss the topic of body shape but are written by different people. With others in your group, discuss each of the questions, which follow and prepare a set of answers, which can be discussed with the whole class. Example 1. A fashion designer “I just don't design clothes for fatties. If they don't care how they look then I don't want them advertising my products. Fat is just not attractive. Name me a supermodel that is fat... yeh, exactly. Everyone knows that fat doesn't get you the guys or the girls. Fat people are lazy, cheeseburger-eating, beer-swilling, couldn't-care-less couch potatoes – and I know for sure – I married one and she agrees. They're all the same, the fatsos. If the average size in the UK for women is now a 16 then I have one thing to say – slim down fatty or wear someone else's label.” Example 2. A teenage girl “Of course I want to be slimmer, who doesn't? I'm fat now but I need to get thin. My doctor says that I have an eating disorder but it's ok for him to say that – he's a man – nobody cares if he's thin or not. He says that if I keep going on going days without food I will become sick but what does he know! The magazines I read are full of diets and full of skinny people. If they can do it, then so can I. One celebrity lost loads of weight eating only soup and another one only ate once a day. I'd far rather do that than have my mates talking about my bum as if it's got a life of its own. Being overweight is unnatural, everybody knows that. If God had meant us to be fat we'd be born with bibs on.” Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Which parts of the stories relate to people’s own experience? Would you consider any parts of the stories to be ‘true’? In what ways are the stories trying to explain body shape? Can you think of ways in which a sociologist might explain attitudes to body shape? Can you identify any differences in the way the 2 stories explain body shape and how a sociologist might explain divorce? Scottish Further Education Unit 10 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological Explanations Attitudes to Body Shape of Trends and fashions exist in society over body shape Attitudes to body shape vary by time and by culture Fat men used to be commonly viewed as 'jolly' Fat women used to be commonly viewed as 'healthy' and 'kind' The idea of the 'perfect 10' is a modern concept in western nations Ideas of body shape influenced by the media Scottish Further Education Unit are 11 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological vs. common sense explanations Worksheet Read the following passages each discussing the topic of drug misuse but written by different people. Discuss each of the questions, which follow with others in your group and prepare a set of answers, which can be discussed with the whole class. Example 1. Extract from an e-mail sent to a live television talk show Hi, I was born and brought up in a deprived area in Dundee, before moving on to a similar area in Edinburgh. Plenty of my pals took drugs but that was up to them. Nobody forced them to take drugs and nobody forced me to take them so these addicts have only got themselves to blame. They should stop blaming everybody else and realise that the only reason they are addicts is that they were stupid and wanted to impress their pals. Anybody that says there are other reasons for people taking drugs is making excuses for them. Lock them all up and throw away the key is what I say. They'll not do drugs in an empty cell. Yours sincerely Appalled from . . . Example 2. Speech from a right-wing politician “It's all the chavs and neds that do hard drugs. You don't see normal people shooting up in a close; it's all the crazies and crusties. It takes a certain type of person to become a drug addict and a certain type of person to be strong enough to avoid drugs. I think all female drug addicts should be sterilised. That way we can get rid of these types and get on with building a decent society with decent people in it” Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Which parts of the stories relate to people’s own experience? Would you consider any parts of the stories to be ‘true’? In what ways are the stories trying to explain drug misuse? Can you think of ways in which a sociologist might explain drug misuse? Can you identify any differences in the way the 2 stories explain drug misuse and how a sociologist might explain it? Scottish Further Education Unit 12 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological Explanation of Drug Misuse often linked to poverty drug addiction affects all social classes and 'types' of person drug misuse linked to living in areas of deprivation peer pressure poorer people have less access to more expensive, purer and therefore less addictive forms of drugs drug addiction among the rich and famous is viewed differently Scottish Further Education Unit 13 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Naturalistic Explanations These explanations assume that ‘natural’ (and sometimes God-given) reasons for behaviour can be identified. One example would be: "poor people are ‘naturally’ less responsible, less intelligent and immoral because they wouldn't be poor otherwise". Scottish Further Education Unit 14 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Individualistic Explanations An explanation that tries to explain a situation solely in terms of the individual or persons involved in it. There is no attempt to understand the situation in terms of wider social forces. Scottish Further Education Unit 15 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sociological Explanations Explanations that attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of wider social forces, processes and structures, using evidence from objective research to support these explanations. For example people are poor due to a lack of well-paid jobs Scottish Further Education Unit 16 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Theory Tutor Guide to Student Handout on Theory This handout is designed to introduce the student to the notion of theory in the study of sociology. It is assumed that the student may have had no experience of studying theory; whether sociological or not and so the concept of theory is introduced before moving on to describe sociological theory. This handout therefore provides a simple introduction to the theory component of the unit and can be used as a basis for discussion and exposition by the tutor. It is envisaged that the reading and discussion/exposition would take no more than 2030 minutes. What could be considered as some of the main sociological theories are mentioned in the handout but it would be worth emphasising to students that sociological theory has many modern variations and some are left to study at Higher and Advanced Higher or other courses they may take such as HN or degree courses. Introduction to Sociological Theory What is a theory? A theory is like a story made up of ideas and concepts, which is used to try to understand things about the world in which we live. Any theory stems from ideas that have been, or could be, tested by some type of research. In other words, strong theories can be backed by evidence. Although personal experience can be used to support a theory this must be ‘testable’ in some form. Think, for example, if one of your friends were trying to explain another friend's unusual behaviour. They may say to you that they "have a theory about that". By saying that, they mean that they are able to explain the other person's behaviour. You might want to 'test' such a theory by matching it to evidence that you or your friend may have about that person. If the theory matches with the evidence you may be willing to accept your friend's theory as valid. But if it doesn't match with the evidence you are likely to reject the suggested theory. You might even suggest ways that the theory could be changed to fit with the evidence, or even suggest an alternative theory of your own In social sciences theories are only seen as having significance if they are backed up by objective research and how well they explain aspects of social life. Each theory has its own ideas, concepts and language. What is Sociological theory? Sociological theory is a particular 'story' for explaining how society works. It attempts to explain social behaviour in terms of the connections between individuals, groups and society. Social behaviours, processes and structures found in society are analysed using theory and this helps to explain how society develops and changes. Is there only one Sociological theory? No, there are many different sociological theories, which have been developed since sociology began. Scottish Further Education Unit 17 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Just as you and your friend in the example above might, between you, develop different theories and slightly different versions of previous theories based on new evidence coming to light, so do sociologists debate the usefulness of various theories and amend them or reject them based on how well they fit with the evidence. That is not to say that all sociological theories are as useful as each other. Some theorists may continue to make claims that don't seem to fit with the evidence and some theories are useful for explaining some things in society but not other things. One way of seeing similarities and differences between different theories is to put them into broad categories. By doing this we are able to view some theories as fitting into the categories Functionalist, Marxist, Feminist and Social Action. This makes it easier for us to understand how the theorist is looking at the thing under investigation and why they may be coming to certain conclusions and not others. These categories are what we focus on for the time being but it is important to note that some theorists are more difficult to place in a particular category as they use ideas and concepts from more than one area of theory. Some modern theorists use different theories altogether and some even say that we shouldn't use theories at all! Scottish Further Education Unit 18 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Functionalist Theories Tutor Guide to Activity on Functionalist Theory – ‘Society like a human body’ Newcomers to the study of sociological theory may find the more abstract aspects rather ‘dry’ and for most, difficult to grasp. The purpose of this exercise is to help the student think about how society is organised according to the functionalist model. If carried out properly by students the exercise should highlight a range of factors and issues and these can be ‘tapped into’ by the tutor in any subsequent discussion or exposition of functionalist theory. It is envisaged that this exercise will take about 20 - 30 minutes with possibly another 30 minutes for feedback in a plenary session. The activity can be undertaken as a ‘stand alone’ exercise but the OHTs that cover the main features of functionalist theories do contain the elements covered in this exercise. The salient features, which should be brought out/discussed using the analogy of the human body as similar to society are: does society, like the human body, have basic requirements that are necessary for survival? is there general agreement on which parts have priority over others? how does the concept of physical health in the human body compare to how functionailst view social order? are there any shared values relating to human bodies that can be compared to shared values in society? Examples might include: - modesty, dress codes, 'gender-appropriate' clothing as metaphors for social values relating to behaviour can the fact that some parts of the body are given better treatment than others in terms of pampering and care be applied to inequality in society? are there people in authority in society who decide what is right and wrong just as there are health 'experts'? how can the notion of physical growth and bodily responses such as sweating when too hot and shivering when too cold be metaphors for social change according to functionalists? how can the notion of pain as deviant but healthy be compared to functionalist accounts of periods of social disorder? It is clear from this list that having discussed these factors the student will have thought about the main aspects of functionalist theories of society, and of social structures and processes. Scottish Further Education Unit 19 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Functionalist theory Worksheet Society like a human body Scottish Further Education Unit 20 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Scottish Further Education Unit 21 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Consider all the different parts that make up the standard human body. Most people have body parts that include: a brain, hair, skin, ears, a mouth, a nose, a neck, a spine, the heart, lungs, ribs, arms, a stomach, kidneys, the liver, an appendix, spleen, genitals, bowels, intestines, legs, knees and feet. Are there any missing from the list? These parts are all present in most human bodies and more or less grow and mature naturally and independently. The parts have separate contributions towards the whole body but some parts are more important than others. For example the body would survive in good health without one of the arms or toes but could not survive without a brain or heart. Some parts are necessary and others less so. These parts are kept functioning by certain processes such as the flow of oxygen, blood flow and blood pressure, brain activity and non-activity (sleep!). Both the processes and the parts are interrelated and co-dependant on one another for good health and proper functioning. For example, a very health brain would function poorly if it received too little blood due to poor circulation and the legs need the heart to pump blood to them or they would cease to function. All the parts, processes and interrelationships go toward making up the whole body, which operates as a harmonious, integrated, ordered system. This system is more than just the sum of all its parts since human bodies need life, a commodity separate from each of the parts, processes and interrelationships. The proper functioning of the body is also protected by natural built-in defence mechanisms that alert the system that something is wrong or is threatening the health of the body. These include instinct, pain, body temperature and the production of body chemicals such as adrenalin. All work together to protect the continuity and stability of the health of the body. The reproduction of human bodies is natural since all bodies possess reproductive genitalia. It is inevitable because humans have, to varying degrees, extremely strong sexual drives. These drives are functional since if reproduction was as appealing to all humans as studying is to students, then it might never get done and we would all die off! Humans develop certain codes of conduct, styles and fashions with regard to the human body. These vary by culture and by time but recent trends with regard to human bodies in Scotland would be the emphasis on looking after the body by following a healthy diet, pampering certain parts of the body, keeping or getting a slim and well-toned body. Some bodies and practices relating to the body are considered by many as 'normal' and others as 'abnormal'. Certain people, such as doctors and dietitians are given the status of having authority in matters relating to the body and consulting these people over health matters is seen by many as natural. Student task Read through the above passage a number of times and then rewrite it, replacing all references to the human body with terms used by functionalists when describing how society works. Use all the terms in bold in your account. Scottish Further Education Unit 22 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to OHTs on Functionalist and Marxist Theories These OHTs have been designed to highlight the main elements of structural theories and to help the learner to evaluate and compare different structural perspectives. The OHTs have been organised as follows: Functionalist: - key theorists - key features - strengths and weaknesses. Marxist: - key theorists - key features - strengths and weaknesses. These OHTs need to be used with guided reading from textbooks. Reading relevant sections on theory could be done before using the OHTs, thus using them as a summary of the main points. On the other hand, the OHTs could be used by way of introducing and breaking down the main points, thus making the text more accessible. The key theorists are only a tiny sample of who could be included and have been chosen because of their significant contribution to these perspectives. Similarly, the key features, strengths and weaknesses are not exhaustive lists and tutors may wish to make up their own OHTs using these as a model. Tutor exposition will, of course, be based round the OHTs and this will depend on tutor’s own reading, knowledge, preferred emphasis and examples. It may be, that if taught as part of the Sociology Higher Course, these theories will be exemplified through the topics in Understanding Human Society 1 and 2. Scottish Further Education Unit 23 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Functionalist Theories Key theorists: Emile Durkheim on Deviance and Religion Suicide, Talcott Parsons on Family Roles Robert Merton on Deviance Scottish Further Education Unit 24 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Functionalist Theories Key features: Assume that behaviour patterned and not random. is Behaviour is shaped by social structures. Emphasise:Integration Harmony Stability Continuity Inevitability Necessity Function. Society is like a human body. Scottish Further Education Unit 25 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach All societies have basis requirements in order to exist There is basis agreement over core values Scottish Further Education Unit 26 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Functionalist Theories Strengths: Look at society as a whole. Consider that social structures shape behaviour. Good at explaining fact that many societies and aspects of those societies tend to 'tick over' peacefully. Weaknesses: Ignores idea that how we interact with others shapes our behaviour. Finds it difficult to explain conflict and change. Assumes that a lot of agreement with core values really exists. Scottish Further Education Unit 27 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Marxism Key theorists: Karl Marx on Capitalism and Class conflict Gramsci on Hegemony Capitalism and Erik Olin Wright on modern day class structures Scottish Further Education Unit 28 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Marxism Key features: Sees society as a structured whole. The most basic aspect of any society is how it produces goods. Capitalist production is based on profit Communist production would be based on need groups in society. The way capitalism arranges how it produces causes great inequality, division of power and conflict. In capitalist production a small minority own the things needed to produce (eg. land, factories, machinery) and these people make up the 'ruling class'. All the rest have to work for the Scottish Further Education Unit 29 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach owners under their rules and conditions and are known as the 'subject class' or workers. This produces a lot of underlying conflict in society. Marx predicts that eventually the workers will tire of this and overthrow the minority ruling class Scottish Further Education Unit 30 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Marxism Strengths: Looks at society as a whole. Recognises power interests of different groups. Good at explaining conflict and change. Weaknesses: Finds it difficult to explain why many workers put up with their situation Capitalism is possibly now stronger than ever. Overlooks idea that other things might shape behaviour. Scottish Further Education Unit 31 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminism Tutor Guide to Exercise on Exploring Gender Categories And OHT On Differences Between Sex and Gender This exercise is a good starting point for making the learner thinks about issues of gender. It is likely that responses to the questions will elicit some answers that can then be explored. It is anticipated that students may not guess the true identity of "Shitcost" culture until reaching Question 7. If this is so then this may further illustrate the cultural aspects of social constructions of masculinity and femininity, since it may encourage looking at their own cultural influences with this regard in a new light. In order to facilitate this it is recommended that tutors 'go with the flow' with the disguised identity under investigation and perhaps make light of the potentially comical aspects of the term "Shitcost" itself in order to deflect focus from the strangeness of the term. Of course, some students may pick up on the fact that the terms are an anagram but it is not anticipated that this would significantly detract from the aims of the task. Notwithstanding the debatable status of a distinctive Scottish culture, separate from a British, or western dominant culture, the task seeks to draw out that, whilst sex is a biological classification, gender is socially constructed. This latter point features predominantly on the following OHT, which details the difference between sex and gender. The point to make here is that although sex is biological/genetic, gender is a social attribute and therefore constructed socially. This allows the tutor to discuss why sex and gender have been made the basis for inequality between men and women. In particular it would be worthwhile discussing with students why biological differences have led to inequality. Sociological argument acknowledges that biological differences do exist but does not see this as a justification for inequality. The point that needs to be emphasised is that inequality is socially constructed. This can then lead into the discussion of feminist perspectives. The completion of the reading of the passage and completion of answers to the questions should take around 30 minutes and the subsequent discussion around 45 minutes depending on time available. Scottish Further Education Unit 32 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist theories Worksheet Case study: masculinity and femininity among young people in Shitcost culture. From this case study it should become clear that there is a distinction between sex and gender. Sex is a biological classification that separates male and female by biological characteristics such as chromosomal make-up and genitalia. Gender, however describes the particular cultural understandings over what it means to behave like a male or female. In other words, there are certain norms, values, expectations and attitudes in any culture over maleness – or 'masculinity' and femaleness – or 'femininity'. These notions are seen to vary by culture, within cultures and over time. Therefore, we can assume that biological sex is naturally fixed and gender is socially constructed. Many sociological observations have been made on masculinity and femininity in Shitcost culture and a closer look at the results strongly indicate our need to consider the social elements of gender roles found there. In Shitcost culture, many young men use particular forms of speech to indicate masculinity. They typically avoid words and phrases that would make them appear 'soft' and they deliberately engage in using words that many elders in the tribe think are rude and offensive. Young men engage in rituals from time to time to assert their masculinity. They consume large quantities of a liquid poison made from rotting fruit mixed with sugar whilst chanting tuneless words of encouragement. One such tune consists of the repetition of the word "ow" in a rising crescendo until an individual drinks the full contents of the masculine mixture. Those who show outwards signs of fear or reluctance to engage in the ritual are castigated as unmasculine and are considered to be sexually suspect. Rumours concerning such individuals abound in Shitcost culture and superstitious practices such as refusing to pick up objects dropped on the floor in the company of such individuals are recommended, lest they spread their feminine tendencies. Young women in Shitcost culture have in recent years adopted many of these practices, much to the disapproval of elders in the tribe. This has resulted in what some would term 'a crisis of femininity' among modern young females in the tribe. Despite this, many young women in Shitcost culture appear to still hold very clear ideas on what it is to be feminine. Symbols indicating this include the public display of body areas and clothing not normally available to those around them and the application of sweet smelling potions and elixirs. They regard some parts of the female body as unfeminine and they may go to great lengths to remove these parts or to cover them up. Young women in Shitcost culture believe that they do such practices for their own satisfaction only and firmly deny all suggestions that they do this to please young men in the tribe. Questions: 1. In what ways do young men in the tribe assert their masculinity? 2. Can you think of any words or ways of speaking that might be considered 'soft' in our culture? 3. Describe rituals among young men in Scotland that attempt to prove masculinity. 4. Why might tribal elders disapprove of the growing trend for young female tribe members to engage in masculine rituals? 5. The display of what body areas might be seen as 'feminine'? 6. Why might young women in the tribe view certain body parts as unwelcome on a truly Scottish Further Education Unit 33 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach feminine body? 7. Have you noticed yet that the term "Shitcost" is an anagram of "Scottish"? 8. Now that you know this, what points would you raise in the following discussion with regard to masculinity and femininity? Scottish Further Education Unit 34 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Sex and Gender Sex/Gender Male/female Masculine/feminine sex is a biological classification gender is a social construction ideas of what it is to be male or female vary by culture and time Scottish Further Education Unit 35 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to OHTs on Feminist Perspectives This set of OHTs sets out the key theorists, main features and strengths and weaknesses of feminist theory. It does not include types of perspectives as this is covered at Higher level and beyond. It would suffice at this level to indicate there are many different strands of feminist theory but that we only consider the general approach taken at this stage. Scottish Further Education Unit 36 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist Theories Key theorists: Ann Oakley on gender and culture and the housewife role Kate Millet on the politics of sex Shulamith Firestone on gender and capitalism Sylvia Walby and patriarchy Bell Hooks on sexism and racism Scottish Further Education Unit 37 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist Theories: Main features Different types but all agree that women have always been dominated by men This domination takes place in the private sphere (at home) and in the public sphere (at work, in politics and wider society) Many use concept of patriarchy structured male-dominated society Some say we should focus on equal rights for women Others say women have no need for men Some say we need to establish matriarchy – structured female-dominated society Scottish Further Education Unit 38 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist Theories Strengths: Gives women a voice Raises awareness of gender issues Highlights situation of women, which was being overlooked Reveals possible reasons for women’s position in society Weaknesses: May be ignoring wider factors such as class. Ignores other social categories such as ethnicity. May overlook the oppression and exploitation of (some) men Scottish Further Education Unit 39 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Social Action Theories Tutor Guide to Student Worksheet on Basic Concepts of Social Action Theory The worksheet is designed to be used as an introduction to some of the basis concepts at the heart of social action theories. Notions of meaning and motive and how these are communicated by the use of symbols is used in such a way as to make what is often a complex and abstract area of sociology, more appealing and easier to engage with for students at this level. It is not required at this level for action theories to be divided into types but the tutor may feel that some basic overview of the work of a specific author may help in explaining the basis approach taken. However this should not be done at the expense of those students who may become confused or overreached at this level. This exercise could be undertaken individually or in small groups with a plenary session to emphasise particular points. The exercise should take approximately 20 - 30 mins with around 30 mins for the plenary. Tutors may wish to make amendments to suit any specific points they wish to draw out. Social action theories Worksheet Task 1. Consider the following symbols that are used in communications between humans: the 'handshake' the 'V' sign blowing a kiss folding the arms touching nose-to-nose patting someone's head. Task 2. For each of the above symbols in turn, list all possible motives and intended meanings behind the action Task 3. Again for each of the symbols above in turn, consider how the possible meanings and motives behind the action may differ when carried out in the following situations: a) b) c) d) e) between two friends between two people having an argument between strangers by a worker to his/her boss between two world leaders meeting in front of live TV cameras. Scottish Further Education Unit 40 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to Handout on Action Theories This handout and set of questions are designed to introduce the student to the main features of one approach taken by social action theorist Erving Goffman (1922 - 1982). Whilst there is no compulsion for students to undertake study of any one social action theorist, Goffman's work provides an excellent example of how social action theorists in general analyse the ways humans perceive their social worlds and how this lies at the root of understanding how they behave. His notion of role taking and behaving in deliberate ways that convey meaning and interpretation is fundamental to Action approaches. Students could be encouraged to focus on the basic approach taken by Goffman and how it is characteristic of the general approach taken by action theories, rather than focus on differences between this approach and other action approaches This exercise should be undertaken on an individual basis although answers could be fed back in a plenary session. This would allow the tutor to explore and clarify particular issues arising from the reading, and would give some indication to the tutor how well students are grasping the concepts discussed. It is envisaged that the reading and answering of questions would take approximately 3040 minutes with a further 20 minutes for a plenary session. Scottish Further Education Unit 41 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Action theories Erving Goffman and the 'dramaturgical' approach to social life Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow. " . . . Erving Goffman (1922 - 1982) in his 'dramaturgical model' of social relations . . . sees social life literally in terms of actors acting, that is, all of us are like actors on a stage, presenting a play. The 'audience' is made up of other social actors. We are all constantly play-acting all the time with each other. Thus, when we are interacting with each other, we adopt strategies to try to ensure our acting is seen by the audience (other people) in a way that reflects well on us. Essentially, Goffman sees social interaction as involving 'impression management'. A social actor wants to feel that he or she is performing the role that he or she is playing well". Source: Sweeney, T., Lewis, J., Etherington, N. (eds) (2003) Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction (p.25), Unity Publications. Questions: 1. What does Goffman mean when he views social life as "actors acting"? 2. What is the 'audience' in the play made up of? 3. Who are the actors in the play? 4. What 'strategies' might we develop in our actions? 5. What is meant by the term 'impression management' in relation to how we wish to portray ourselves? 6. What is meant by the term 'role' that actors wish to perform well? Scottish Further Education Unit 42 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to OHTs on Action Theories This set of OHTs identifies some key theorists, key features and strengths and weaknesses of Action theories. These could be used to summarise the main points of the Action perspective after the student has undertaken guided reading, or used before the student undertakes such a task. They can be used in conjunction with the previous two activities. Scottish Further Education Unit 43 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Action Theories Key theorists: Max Weber: Meaning Social Action Motive G.H. Mead: Social nature of the human being Role-taking E. Goffman: Social actors Life as drama Scottish Further Education Unit 44 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Action Theories Key features: Social action arises from how we interact with others We can best explain behaviour by focusing on individuals. Social roles, social actors and social processes shape human behaviour. Study of individuals and groups is important to understanding society. To understand any social behaviour, we must look at the meaning and interpretation attached to the behaviour. Scottish Further Education Unit 45 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Action Theories Strengths: Takes account of the role of the individual in shaping behaviour Good at explaining things on a small scale that shape behaviour Important in explaining the meaning and motives attached to social behaviour and the interpretation of social behaviour by others. Weaknesses: Overlooks role of the whole of society in shaping behaviour. Tends to focus on the present only and overlooks what has happened in the past. Scottish Further Education Unit 46 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Assumes that humans are always aware of what their behaviour means. Can be seen as based on ideas that are difficult to prove. Overlooks role of power and inequality in shaping behaviour Scottish Further Education Unit 47 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to OHTs on Applications of Theories and Similarities and Differences Between Theories The following OHTs should be used to support teaching requirements for Intermediate 2 candidates only. Scottish Further Education Unit 48 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Applications of theories to social class Functionalist: some degree of inequality is natural and inevitable since varying levels of skill and ability are biological the relationship between classes is integrative functional: the and the working class needs the middle class to supervise it and the upper class to provide jobs the middle class needs the working class to supervise and the upper class to provide jobs Scottish Further Education Unit 49 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach the upper class needs the middle class to supervise workers and the working class to do the manual work Marxist: capitalism creates two main opposing classes made up of owners and workers the owners control the terms and conditions of the workers and take the profits of their labour workers are 'wage slaves' the working class will eventually get together and take control of production Scottish Further Education Unit 50 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist: some feminists think social class divisions impact less than gender divisions others think it is just as important if not more some point out that sociological studies of social class have focused on men some note the plight of working class women others see race and ethnicity as more divisive than class for women some see capitalist dominated by men power as Social Action: Scottish Further Education Unit 51 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach some focus on small-scale impact of social class on individuals and groups social class shapes individuals view their worlds how it impacts on meanings, interactions, motives, self concepts and identity people 'act out' class roles Scottish Further Education Unit 52 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Application socialisation of theories to Functionalist: crucially important in terms of teaching core norms and values teaches people how to be social citizens produces social order primary socialisation in the family secondary socialisation at school, at work, through the media, by religion, through peer group and the law Scottish Further Education Unit 53 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Marxist: socialisation is controlled by the ruling class people are socialised into accepting dominant norms and values people are taught to conform and not to rebel people are taught that capitalism is fair and just socialisation ideology Scottish Further Education Unit teaches dominant 54 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Feminist: socialisation teaches gender roles these roles are unnatural but are presented as natural men control the socialisation process and women conform to it men are taught to be powerful and women are taught to be subservient Social Action: socialisation shapes how individuals and groups see the world people are taught to see particular Scottish Further Education Unit 55 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach meanings socialisation teaches people how to interact individuals have the power to override the affects of socialisation and to choose to act differently from what they were taught Scottish Further Education Unit 56 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Similarities and between the theories: differences Functionalist, Marxist and feminist theories tend to focus on the 'bigger picture' they tend to assume that individuals are shaped by wider society Action theorists assume individuals shape society that Functionalist, Marxist and Social Action theorists have tended to focus more on studies of men Feminists focus mainly on studies of women Functionalists and some social action theorists tend to overlook Scottish Further Education Unit 57 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach deeply rooted conflicts in society Marxists and feminists focus primarily on these conflicts and competing interests in society Many modern theorists combine Marxist, feminist and/or social action approaches Very few modern theorists openly use functionalist approaches It is difficult to combine functionalism with any of the other approaches Scottish Further Education Unit 58 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Reading List, Introductory Factors and the Importance of Methods in Sociology Tutor Guide to Reading List on aspects of Research Methods The reading list on the following page is based on two sociology textbooks that are appropriate for this level of study. There are other textbooks available than the ones given, but not all cover the aspects required for this unit. The reading list can be used as a tutor resource or as a student resource, which could be given out at the beginning of the unit. Although the material in the unit covers all parts of the curriculum the students will find supplementary reading helpful in understanding the methods used in sociological study. Scottish Further Education Unit 59 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Suggested reading on aspects of research methods Primary and secondary sources Sociology Alive (2nd edition) Stephen Moore Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd. pp. 26 - 27 ‘Primary and secondary sources’ Sociology a new approach (3rd edition) Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald Causeway Press. pp. 42 - 43 ‘Secondary sources’ Methods Sociology Alive (2nd edition) Stephen Moore Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd. Questionnaires and interviews: pp. 21 - 25 Observation: pp. 29 - 30 Comparative studies: pp. 26 Longitudinal studies: p. 16 Official statistics: pp. 27 - 28 Sociology a new approach (3rd edition) Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald Causeway Press. Questionnaires: pp. 37 - 38 Interviews: pp. 33 - 35 Observation: pp. 30 - 33 Comparative studies: p. 48 Longitudinal studies: pp. 38 - 39 Official statistics: p. 47 Secondary written evidence: pp. 42 - 44 Novels: p. 42 Scottish Further Education Unit 60 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide on OHT on the Importance of Methods in Sociology This activity is designed to introduce the student to the importance of methods and reasons why they are given so much attention within sociology. The main points provide an opportunity for exposition and discussion, which can be supplemented by reading or text, issued by the tutor. Some of the points that arise from the OHT are: The development of sociology as a social science. Reference could be made to ideas developed by Auguste Comte; the development of positivism and the imitation of the natural sciences. Sociologists today want to gather different types of information eg. numerical and descriptive and therefore need to employ different methods. Methodology is important in supporting theories and hypotheses. Poor methodology and inappropriate selection of a method can result in invalid results and can be the focus of criticism of any study. Scottish Further Education Unit 61 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Methods Sociology is a social science therefore needs methods to ensure objectivity. Helps the sociologist gather specific types of information. Using a particular method means it can be used to re-test an idea. If the sociologist is trying to prove a theory then the method chosen to collect the data is important. Scottish Further Education Unit 62 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Tutor Guide to ‘Thoughtshower’ Activity and OHTs on Ways of Gathering Information This activity can be used for both Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2, and would also be suitable for bi-level teaching. It should help the student come to terms with some of the methods used in sociological research without using technical language. Students are asked to write down all the ways they can gather information about people, social behaviour, social attitudes and the development of society. The tutor can then ask each class member for one item and write these up on a flip chart or chalkboard. As this does not involve a great deal of explanation on the part of the student it is a good way of involving everyone in the class. The tutor can then talk about the items on the list and encourage the class to expand on some of the ideas expressed. The OHTs can be used at the end to summarise some of the items by placing them into broad categories. The OHTs serves as a general introduction to the specific methods that need to be covered in the evidence requirements for this unit. Scottish Further Education Unit 63 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Ways of Finding out Information ask people observe what people do look at existing information look at historical information look at magazines pictures, videos, read novels or personal accounts Scottish Further Education Unit 64 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach This can involve: written information verbal information visual information comparison societies of cultures or study over a period of time Scottish Further Education Unit 65 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary and Secondary Sources of Data Collection Tutor Guide on OHTs, Handout and Activity on Primary and Secondary Sources of Data Collection The OHTs are an introduction to the main difference between primary and secondary sources of data collection and some examples of particular methods, which may be included in these categories. It must be noted, however, that some of the methods included in the list of primary sources may also be applicable to secondary sources e.g. longitudinal studies and comparative studies. Tutors may wish to cover this overlap depending on the ability of the students to work with this degree of complexity. The handouts reiterate and deepen the content of the OHTs. These could be given out to read and discuss in a plenary session. Alternatively, they could be given out and used with the activity outlined below. A third option is to give this out for revision purposes at the end of teaching this aspect of the unit or course. Two versions, one for Intermediate 1 and one for Intermediate 2, are given for purposes of differential learning and teaching. This activity is designed to test the student’s knowledge of primary and secondary sources of data. This could be used as a worksheet to assess the ideas given in the handout (see point 2 above). It can also be used for formative assessment or revision purposes. Two versions, one for Intermediate 1 and one for Intermediate 2, are given for purposes of differential learning and teaching. In either case the finished grid should reflect the answers given below. Advantage Primary sources New data collected by the researcher Participant Observation Interviews Can control information Secondary sources Information already exists Official statistics Novels May save time and money as information has already been gathered. Disadvantage May be costly May be biased One main feature Two examples of methods Scottish Further Education Unit 66 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary Sources New information collected sociologist or researcher by the Includes: questionnaires interviews participant observation non-participant observation longitudinal studies comparative studies. Scottish Further Education Unit 67 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Secondary Sources This is when the sociologist or researcher uses existing information Includes: official statistics novels paintings videos photographs diaries/personal accounts autobiographies. Scottish Further Education Unit 68 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 1) When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can use existing information. Primary Sources If a sociologist gathers new information this is known as collecting primary sources of information. This means the information will be gathered directly by the sociologist or by a researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point is that whatever method the sociologist chooses it will new information. It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea, which has been tested before by other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still be gathering their own information rather than using any data which previous sociologists have gathered. One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by Eileen Barker. In this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research. These included participant observation, interviews and questionnaires. Secondary Sources This use of sources, still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they are using information, which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist will use information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, police statistics on crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her own research. The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings or novels. Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but the sociologist can still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what life was like for families in the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in time and ask people, but books and paintings may be able to tell the researcher something of what it was like 200 years ago. Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. For example, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one-day they will be read. Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. So, sociologists must be aware of these factors when using these secondary sources. Scottish Further Education Unit 69 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 2) When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can use existing information. Primary Sources If a sociologist gathers new information this is known as collecting Primary Sources of information. This means the information will be gathered directly by the sociologist or by a researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point is that whatever method the sociologist chooses it will new information. It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea, which has been tested before by other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still be gathering their own information rather than using any data which previous sociologists have gathered. One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by Eileen Barker. In this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research. These included participant observation, interviews and questionnaires. There are pluses and minuses to using primary sources. The pluses include: researcher has some control over the information researcher decides the way in which information will be gathered there will be an opportunity to check the kind of information given researcher may be more aware of bias. The minuses include: it can cost a lot to do research it can be time-consuming. Secondary Sources This use of sources still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they are using information, which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist will use information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, police statistics on crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her own research. The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings or novels. Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but the sociologist can still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what life was like for families in the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in time and ask people, but books and paintings may be able to tell the researcher something of what it was like 200 years ago. Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. For example, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one-day they will be read. Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. So sociologists must be aware of these factors when using secondary sources. Scottish Further Education Unit 70 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach There are pluses and minuses to using secondary sources. The pluses include: it can save time for the researcher it can save money it can give valuable insight into some aspects of social life. The minuses include: the possibility of bias the difficulty of checking if the information is accurate. Scottish Further Education Unit 71 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 1) Worksheet Read the following statements. Decide which ones belong to primary sources and which ones to secondary sources. Put each statement in the correct box. New data collected by the researcher Official statistics Participant Observation May save time and money as information has already been gathered Can control information Information already exists Novels May be biased Interviews May be costly Primary sources Secondary sources One main feature Two examples of methods Scottish Further Education Unit 1. 1. 2. 2. 72 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 2) Worksheet Complete the blank boxes below with statements, which refer to each aspect of primary and secondary sources. Some information has already been given. One main feature Primary sources New data collected by the researcher Secondary sources Two examples of methods 1. 1. Official statistics 2. 2. Advantages Disadvantages Scottish Further Education Unit May be costly 73 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires Tutor Guide for Activities, Handouts and OHTs on Questionnaires This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover all the main aspects of using questionnaires as a research method. Each can be used in conjunction with all the others although each can also be used independently, depending on time and preference. As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Some aspects such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts, revision exercises and so on which have been designed for each level (but which can be used concurrently with 2 levels in one class). Some activities have also a range of topics to meet the needs of different age groups. For example, in the activity on carrying out a questionnaire, smoking, magazines/comics and computers are all included to give tutors a choice. This section on questionnaires includes the following: 1. OHT on the main features of questionnaires. Tutors may adapt this as they wish. This could form the basis of an introduction to this particular method. 2. Handout on open and closed questions. This handout explains to students the differences between open and closed questions. This should be read by students and then discussed in a plenary session. 3. The discussion on open and closed questions could be followed using the Student Activity Sheet. This allows students to examine a series of questions and decide which ones are open questions and which are closed questions. A plenary session could be used to provide feedback and discuss the reasons why each is an open or closed question. 4. Exercise/activity in administration of questionnaires. This exercise would allow students to try out a questionnaire for themselves, exploring the difficulties of open and closed questions, and relating questions to results. There are three topics, which could be explored: smoking, comics/magazines and computers. Students could have a choice or tutors may prefer to decide this in advance depending on class group. This section contains: general instruction sheet for students a questionnaire which contains open and closed questions (one for each topic) an activity sheet (one for each topic), which asks students to collate the results from the questionnaires, they have administered. 5. Thought shower and revision exercise on advantages and disadvantages. If students have undertaken the questionnaire activity it is hoped that they will have been able to identify some of the advantages and disadvantages of using this method. A brainstorming exercise either as a class group or smaller groups could be undertaken using a chalkboard or flipchart. This could be followed by using the revision sheets on advantages and disadvantages (sheets for different levels), which would also be useful for formative assessment purposes. 6. The handout on choice, range and scope could be given out and discussed after the exercise on advantages and disadvantages. This would enable the student to Scottish Further Education Unit 74 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach make connections between advantages and disadvantages and the factors involved in choice, range and scope. Scottish Further Education Unit 75 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires List of pre-prepared questions. Can be handed out to people to complete. Can be posted out to people to complete. These are known as postal questionnaires. Used in social surveys. Can find out factual information e.g. do you buy a daily newspaper. Can be used to find out the opinion of people e.g. what do you feel about the Royal Family. Scottish Further Education Unit 76 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires Asking questions There are two types of questions, which can be asked. These are: closed questions and open questions. Depending on the type of information you want a sociologist will use a particular type. Closed questions These are good for gathering factual information such as how many people own a car or how many people buy a daily newspaper. Closed questions will tend to ask for: a yes or no answer, e.g. do you own a car? numerical information such as how many people live in your house? short descriptive information such as what is your favourite T.V. programme? This means that you can easily quantify the information. For example, if you ask 100 people if they smoke and they answer yes or no then you can simply count the answers. If 20 smoke and 80 do not smoke you can claim that 20% of your sample are smokers and 80% are non-smokers. You could then conclude from this that the majority does not smoke. Open questions These can be used to explore something in depth. For example, they can be used to: find out the views of people find out the opinions of people test attitudes to find out why people do things. For example, if you wanted to know why people started to smoke, you would need to ask people why they started smoking. If you ask 100 people you may find that you get a different answer from each person. This would make it more difficult to record and make sense of this information. If you found that you had answers that were similar you might want to put these under a specific heading. For example, you might have headings such as: influence of friends; pressure from peer group; your parents smoked; adverts in magazines; and influence from films and T.V. programmes. Scottish Further Education Unit 77 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires Student Activity Sheet Read each of the questions below. Decide which ones are open questions and which are closed questions. Write your answer in the space beside each question. 1. Do you smoke? 2. What programmes did you watch on T.V. last night? 3. Do you own a car? 4. How many people live in your house? 5. Did you vote in the last election? 6. Can you tell me why you buy that brand of soap? 7. What are your views on capital punishment? 8. Why did you start smoking? 9. Who did you vote for in the last election? 10. Why did you vote the way you did in the last election? Scottish Further Education Unit 78 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires (Int 2) Advantages and disadvantages Questionnaires are used in many sociological studies. These can be in the form of a postal questionnaire, which is sent directly to people’s houses. The respondent has to complete these and return in to the sociologist. Questionnaires may also be directly given out, for example in the street or shopping centre and people will complete them and hand them back. Questionnaires might also be used as part of an interview where the researcher asks people questions and fills in the answers. Describe 3 advantages to using this method 1. 2. 3. Describe 3 disadvantages to using this method 1. 2. 3. Scottish Further Education Unit 79 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Questionnaires Asking questions - student activity Following tutor guidance, select a partner with whom you will carry out this exercise. With the agreement of your tutor decide which topic you will use for this activity. Decide when and where you will carry out this activity. You will need 10 people to give the questionnaire to. These could be members of the class, friend, family or other suitable people. Depending on your topic you may have to approach more than 10 people to find out if they are suitable for your questionnaire. For example, if you want to find out the way in which people are using computers, you first need to find 10 people who use a computer. Always explain clearly to people the purpose of the questionnaire and always thank them at the end for helping you. Your tutors will give you copies of a questionnaire or will assist you in making one up. Once you have 10 completed questionnaires you should look at your results using the activity sheet given by your tutor. This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete and return to the researcher. Scottish Further Education Unit 80 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Smoking 1. How many cigarettes do you smoke a Fewer than 10 day? Between 10 - 20 Between 20 - 30 More than 30 2. Do you think cigarettes are too dear? 3. At what age did you have your first cigarette? 4. Why did you start smoking in the first place? 5. Have you ever tried to stop smoking? 6. If Yes, why have you not managed to stop smoking? Yes or No Yes or No Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire. Scottish Further Education Unit 81 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Smoking questionnaires Results Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on smoking. Taking each question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people who answered the questionnaire. How many people smoke: Fewer than 10 Between 10 - 20 Between 20 - 30 More than 30 How many people think that cigarettes are too dear? What is the age range for people starting to smoke? What are the main reasons people gave for starting to smoke? How many people have attempted to stop smoking? What are the main reasons for people not managing to stop smoking? Scottish Further Education Unit 82 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete and return to the researcher. Buying a magazine/comic 1. Which magazine or comic do you buy regularly? 2. Why do choose that magazine or comic? 3. How much do you pay for your magazine or comic? 4. Do you think the magazine or comic is Yes or No too dear? 5. What things in the magazine or comic do you like the best? 6. Would you buy more magazines or Yes or No comics if you could afford them? Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire. Scottish Further Education Unit 83 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Magazine/comic questionnaires Results Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on buying magazines or comics. Taking each question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people who answered the questionnaire. What range of magazines and comics do people buy? What is the range of prices people pay for magazines or comics? How many people feel they are paying too much for their magazine or comic? How many people would buy more magazines and comics if they could afford them? What are the main reasons for people choosing a magazine or comic? What is the range of things people like in magazines or comics? Scottish Further Education Unit 84 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete and return to the researcher. Using computers and the Internet 1. Do you have a Yes/No computer at home? If no, please go to question 4. 2. How often do you use Please tick one: your computer at every day home? nearly every day sometimes occasionally never 3. What is the main use Please tick one: of your computer at word-processing home? Internet leisure games other - please specify………………………… 4. Do you have a Yes/No computer at your school/college/place If no, please go to question 7. of work? How often do you use Please tick one: the computer at every day school/college/place nearly every day of work? sometimes occasionally never 5. 6. What is the main use of the computer at school/college/place of work? 7. For those who At home: answered ‘no’ to Question 1 or 4. What are your main At work: reasons for not having a computer at home or work? Scottish Further Education Unit 85 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Computers / Internet Questionnaires Results Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on computers. Taking each question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people who answered the questionnaire. 1. How many people have access to a computer at home? 2. How frequently did the people in the sample use home computers? 3. How many people have access to a computer at work/school/college? 4. How frequently did the people in the sample use computers at work/school/college? 5. How many people had access to a computer both at home and at work/school/college? 6. For those who did have access to computers both at home and at work/school/college, was there any similarity or difference in the frequency of use? 7. What are the main uses of home computers? (greatest first) 8. What are the main uses of computers at work/college/school? 9. What were the main reasons given for not having a computer at home? Scottish Further Education Unit 86 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviews (Structured and Unstructured) Tutor Guide to OHTs, Handouts and Activities on Interviews 1. The OHT is an introduction to some of the general features and uses of interviews as a research method. The information on the OHT is supplemented by material in the handouts for this section. 2. There are two related handouts for this section: One explores specific aspects of both structured and unstructured interviews and demonstrates the similarities and differences in each aspect of this method of research. It can be used as an introduction to the method and/or in relation to the activity and/or as a revision tool. The second handout highlights the advantages and disadvantages of using this method in general and also those specific to structured and unstructured interviews. Some of the material overlaps with parts of the first handout. This handout could be given out for revision purposes or given as a summary after the activity has been completed and the advantages and disadvantages of using this method have been discussed for delivery at Int 2. 3. The activity is designed as a practical way of allowing students to experience or observe the interview method. In this way they can compare differences between structured and unstructured interviews and discover through the exercise some of the advantages and disadvantages of using this method. As this may be a time-consuming activity it is suggested that this be carried out in small groups 4 - 6 with one interviewer, one respondent and the rest observers of the process. A structured interview could be carried out. People could then change roles and an unstructured interview could be carried out. Students could then compare results, observations, etc., as per list. This should highlight: differences in recording answers length of time attitude to interviewer leading, agreeing by interviewer advantages and disadvantages. Tutors may wish to use the material on questionnaires in the previous section. The handout on open and closed questions would also be relevant to this method. The questionnaires could be also be used but would be administered by the student rather than asking respondents to complete these. Scottish Further Education Unit 87 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviews Carried out by the sociologist or researcher. They are a primary source of data collection. They can be unstructured. structured or They can be used in surveys or opinion polls to gather factual information. They can be used in studies which try to find out attitudes, feelings and reasons. Scottish Further Education Unit 88 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviews (Int 1) In sociology one method, which is used to gather data, is the interview. It is a popular method because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly. This method is known as a primary source of data collection because it involves the sociologist gathering new information for his/her research. There are two main types of interviews. The structured interview and the unstructured interview. The Structured Interview This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-set questions. The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. The questions will be asked in the same order and in the same way. The interviewers get training for their job. They try to be objective when asking questions. This can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachable but not give away personal feelings. For example, they often have to ask questions about which people feel sensitive. The interviewer has to be careful not to show approval or disapproval at the answer given. Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answer they think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research were being carried out into prejudice against black people, the interviewer would need to ask people what they feel. The people being interviewed might not admit to being prejudice because they know it is not right to be prejudice. Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded. This makes it easier for the researcher to analyse the data gathered. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ may be given a code 1 and a ‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being put into a computer. Although this saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, it does take more time when making up the interview questions. The Unstructured Interview This type of interview is also carried out face-to-face. In this type of interview the questions are not pre-set. The interviewer will discuss areas of interest but there is no specific order to the discussion. The person being interviewed can discuss points in-depth or make new points. This can be difficult, as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does not ramble on about things that are not related to the research. The sociologist has to have a strong idea of what he/she wants to find out. The recording of unstructured interviews can be difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and later write down what has been said. However, some people do not like speaking into a tape. Scottish Further Education Unit 89 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviews (Int 2) In sociology one method, which is used to gather data, is the interview. It is a popular method because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly about the things, which affect them. This method is known as a primary source of data collection because it involves the sociologist gathering new information for his/her research. There are two main types of interviews that sociologists use. The structured interview and the unstructured interview. The Structured Interview This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-set questions. The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. Each question will be asked in the same way and in the same sequence. The interviewers are trained to do interviewing. They try to be objective when asking questions but this can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachable but also have to be careful about the tone of their voice and their body language. For example, if they are asking people views about a sensitive subject they must be careful not to show approval or disapproval if a particular answer is given. Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answer they think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research is being carried out into racism, then the people being interviewed might not admit to being prejudice because they feel it would not be acceptable or might give offence. Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded which makes it easier for the researcher when analysing the data from the interviews. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ may be given a code 1 and a ‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being put into a computer. Although this saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, it does take some time when making up the interview questions. The Unstructured Interview This type of interview is also carried out face-to-face. In this type of interview the sociologist will have broad areas they wish to discuss but the questions are not pre-set. There is no sequence to covering particular topics. The person being interviewed can expand on points or perhaps raise new points. This can be difficult as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does not ramble on about things that are not relevant to the research. The sociologist needs a strong idea of the types of topics he/she needs to cover for the research. The recording of this can be difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and then write down what has been said later. This is known as transcribing the interview. However, some people do not like speaking into a tape and this may make them feel nervous or put them off being interviewed. Scottish Further Education Unit 90 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviews (Int 2) Advantages and disadvantages As with all methods there are advantages and disadvantages to using interviews as a method of research. Some advantages and disadvantages are common to both structured and unstructured interviews. Some advantages and disadvantages are specific to either structured interviews or unstructured interviews. Structured interviews Advantages Good response rate. Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes rather than just factual information. Can analyse data easily. Reliability. All people asked the same question in the same way. Disadvantages Takes time. Needs trained interviewer. Effect of the interviewer on the person being questioned. High cost. Scottish Further Education Unit 91 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unstructured interviews Advantages Good response rate Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes rather than just factual information Can get in-depth information Opportunity to clarify points, meaning, and so on. The person being questioned may give new or important information that the researcher had not considered. Disadvantages Takes time. Needs trained interviewer. Effect of the interviewer. High cost. Person being interviewed may ramble. No set questions. People may have different ideas of what is being asked. Can be difficult to analyse the data. Scottish Further Education Unit 92 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Interviewing Group activity In your group, and using the sheets and guidance given by your tutor, carry out an interview activity. You will need: one person to be the interviewer one person to be interviewed the rest of the group to observe the interview. Guidance for interviewers Using the sheets given to you by your tutor carry out the interview. You will need to write the answers given on the sheets. If you are doing a structured interview the questions are pre-set. If you are doing an unstructured interview the areas to be covered are given but you will need to decide the way you will ask the questions. Guidance for students observing the interview You need to look at the way the interviewer and the person being interviewed are behaving. Some points you might want to consider are: the way questions are asked the tone of voice used whether the person understands the questions whether the interviewer is leading the person to answer in a particular way whether both interviewer and person being interviewed seem relaxed or not. Group discussion In your group discuss the results, observations and feelings, which have resulted from this activity. Some things you might like to consider are: how easy/difficult was it to ask questions how easy/difficult was it to answer questions how easy/difficult is it to make sense of the information given was there a difference between a structured and unstructured interview how did it feel to be interviewed the body language, tone of voice, eye contact between the interviewer and the person being interviewed was there any awkwardness in the interview what are the advantages of using pre-set questions what are the disadvantages of using pre-set questions what are the advantages of doing an unstructured interview what are the disadvantages of doing an unstructured interview. Scottish Further Education Unit 93 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Structured interview on Smoking 1. How many cigarettes do you smoke a Fewer than 10 day? Between 10 - 20 Between 20 - 30 More than 30 2. At what age did you have your first cigarette? 3. Why did you start smoking in the first place? 4. Have you ever tried to stop smoking? 5. If Yes, why have you not managed to stop smoking? Scottish Further Education Unit Yes or No 94 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unstructured interviews on smoking Areas to be covered: Pattern of smoking e.g. how many and when. The reasons the person started smoking. Why the person continues to smoke. What would make the person stop smoking. Scottish Further Education Unit 95 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Structured interview on buying a magazine/comic 1. Which magazine or comic do you buy regularly? 2. Why do choose that magazine or comic? 3. How much do you pay for your magazine or comic? 4. Do you think the magazine or comic is Yes or No too dear? 5. What things in the magazine or comic do you like the best? 6. Would you buy more magazines or Yes or No comics if you could afford them? Scottish Further Education Unit 96 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Unstructured interview on buying a magazine or comic Areas to be covered: The magazines or comics person buys (could include the names and how often they are bought). Factors which affect the choice of magazine/comic (e.g. price and content). Reasons person does not buy more magazines/comics (e.g. price, no time, no interest). Scottish Further Education Unit 97 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation Tutor Guide to Handouts and Questions, Examples, and OHTs on Participant Observation Handout and questions. These are designed to introduce students to the basic uses, advantages, disadvantages, range and scope of participant observation as a method of research. The handout and questions for Intermediate 1 and 2 are similar in content but Intermediate 1 has more support in terms of the heading that are given and key words highlighted in bold print. The questions at each level also reflect the quantity of information required for assessment and the Intermediate 1 questions have more ‘leads’. A plenary session could be used to discuss the answers and this activity could be supplemented by the examples of research and the OHTs summarising the advantages and disadvantages. Examples of research using participant observation. These handouts give the student two examples of sociological research in two different areas – education and religion. They can be used in conjunction with the handout and questions as discussed above or can be given as supplementary material. The OHTs provide a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation. These reflect the points raised in the handout although the language used in the OHT is slightly different. Scottish Further Education Unit 98 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation as a research method (Int 1) Read the following passage and answer the questions below. Using participant observation It is a method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information. It is a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations and behaviour. In using this method the sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. When sociologists use participant observation they have three choices: no-one in the group knows their identity or purpose the group knows their identity or purpose. only key people know their identity or purpose. Questions 1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method? 2. Why can participant observation be dangerous? 3. List the topics that can be studied using participant observation. 4. Why might this research method be limited? Scottish Further Education Unit 99 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation as a research method (Int 2) Read the following passage and answer the questions below. In using this method the sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. It is a method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information. When sociologists use participant observation they have three choices: no-one in the group knows their identity or purpose the group knows their identity or purpose. only key people know their identity or purpose. Participant observation is a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations and behaviour. This is because the researcher is observing and taking part in the everyday activities. This means the researcher can look at the meanings people give to their actions. They can also study processes and interactions that are taking place. Researchers who use this method usually have to spend a fair amount of time participating in the group. In some case this may be as long as 1 - 2 years. This means it can cost a lot in both time and money. Recording the information is can be difficult as it is not always convenient to write things down – especially if the researcher’s purpose is not known. If there is gap in the time between observing behaviour and writing it down then the information may not be accurate. Participant observation can be dangerous. For example, some sociologists have studied gangs or drug taking. In this situation they may be dealing with things that could be dangerous, deviant and criminal. If they do not say who they are and people find out this can cause problems. Even if the group being studied do know it may still be dangerous because other people indirectly related to the group may not want their activities to be known. For example, a sociologist could study drug-users who have agreed to take part, but this may involve drug suppliers who may object to any knowledge about them being known. Participant Observation has been used in many areas of research. It can be used to investigate a wide range of topics. For example, participant observation has been used to carry out research in the areas of education, religion, drug-taking and gang culture. Questions 1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method? 2. Give two advantages to using participant observation? 3. Why can participant observation be dangerous? 4. Give two other disadvantages to using participant observation? Scottish Further Education Unit 100 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation (Int 1/2) Example from sociological research Paul Willis – Learning to Labour This is a well-known study by a sociologist called Paul Willis. In this study Willis wanted to know why middle class children get middle class jobs and working class children get working class jobs. To understand this he decided to look at class culture in the education system and how this related to the types of jobs young people went into. Some of this research involved Willis carrying out observation and participant observation in a school in England. A group of 12 non-academic working class boys was studied intensively. To do this Willis observed and participated in class, school and other leisure activities. Willis’s identity and purpose was not kept a secret. The pupils and teachers at the school knew his study. The boys he studied were known as ‘the lads’ – a name they gave themselves. One of the main aims of this group was to have ‘a laugh’. The lads saw themselves as separate from those who took school seriously. They named this other group the ‘ear ‘oles’ or ‘lobes’ because they always listened to what was said rather than making their own rules. Scottish Further Education Unit 101 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation (Int 1/2) Example from sociological research Eileen Barker – The Making of the Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing The Moonies is the popular name given to the Unification Church, which was founded by Reverend Moon. It has become well known because some people have thought it ‘brainwashes’ members. It has also been associated with mass weddings where thousands of couples are married on one day. Barker was interested in why people joined sects and who they were. She also wanted to explore Moonie membership from the point of view of those involved. To do this she used a variety of methods, which included participant observation. Barker’s identity and purpose was known to those she studied. She said that her presence had influenced the behaviour of others. For example, during the research she had stepped in to help members of the group and their families who were unhappy that they had joined. She was also required to give a talk on a religious topic in which she did not believe. However, her talk had the unexpected result of convincing another member of the group of the truth. Barker’s study showed that most recruits were from ‘respectable’ homes. The Moonies offered the security and warmth found in childhood but missing from adult life. She also found that most recruits drop out of the Moonies after a short while. Scottish Further Education Unit 102 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Participant Observation Advantages: Looks at behaviour in a ‘natural’ setting. Helps the sociologist see things from the point of view of the people he/she is researching. It allows processes, meanings, and interactions to be studied. Sociologist can look at behaviour over a period of time therefore provides more than a ‘snap-shot’. Scottish Further Education Unit 103 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Disadvantages: It takes a long time to do this type of study. There may be problems with three distinct stages: ‘getting in’ ‘staying in’ ‘getting out’. Ethical considerations: may involve studying people without their knowledge or agreement may be invading people’s private lives. Researcher’s presence behaviour of others. will alter Recording evidence and analysing the results can be difficult. Scottish Further Education Unit 104 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-Participant Observation Tutor Guide to OHTs, Handout, Activity and Exercise on Non-Participant Observation 1. The OHT is designed to introduce the students to some of the main features of non-participant observation. Other aspects are covered in the handouts and activities included in this section. The one point that should be emphasised at this stage is the difference between non-participant observation and participant observation. 2. The handout on non-participant observation covers all aspects i.e. uses, advantages, disadvantages, scope, range, choice and examples. For Intermediate 1 the text has been boxed to aid learning. The handout for Intermediate 2 has very similar context but this is given in a continuous text form. The handouts can be used as a basis for class discussion, revision notes, and for the formative assessment/exercise – see Point 4 below. 3. The activity is designed for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 and involves the student carrying out a non-participant observation. The suggested places should be public and safe and student must be aware of the rules i.e. not to act suspiciously and to withdraw if at any time they feel uncomfortable. It would also be advisable to tell the person responsible if they are carrying this out in a public place e.g. the owner of a café or teacher responsible for any common-room/playground area. 4. The exercises can be used as a formative assessment to ascertain knowledge gained during this aspect of study. Two versions of the questions are included. At Intermediate 2 the questions come in the form of a short quiz. In the Intermediate 1 exercise, students are given one right answer and one wrong answer and they are required to indicate which is which. Scottish Further Education Unit 105 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-Participant Observation : Sociologist wants ‘natural’ behaviour. to observe Sociologist does not take part in the group or activity that is being observed. The people who are being observed may not know they are being studied. Sociologist observes and records the observation. Scottish Further Education Unit 106 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-participant observation (Int 1) Uses Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe natural behaviour. Usually the observer can be seen by the people he/she is researching although they may not know they are being observed. For this reason this method is considered unethical by some. The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by doing some activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a two-way mirror may be used or a microphone planted in a room to record conversations. Examples In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juries behaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in the jury room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted and reached their decisions. Williams and other researchers carried out a more recent study. The area of research was football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observe how English football supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers went to the football stadium where matches were being played and observed the behaviour of the football supporters. This study was carried out in 1984. Scottish Further Education Unit 107 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-participant observation (Int 2) Uses of non-participant observation Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe natural behaviour. Usually the people can see the observer he/she is researching although they may not know they are being observed. For this reason this method is considered unethical by some. The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by doing some activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a two-way mirror may be used or a microphone may be planted in a room to record conversations. Advantages Non-participant observation has the advantage of allowing the sociologist to look at social behaviour in a ‘natural’ way. This method can also give information that could not be found by simply asking questions. For example, if you observed a group you observe the interactions between group members. Disadvantages There are many disadvantages to using non-participant observation. One is that the sociologist cannot check on what he/she sees. Another is that the sociologist will have to interpret what he/she sees and therefore this may be biased. A third disadvantage is that the sociologist can observe actions and behaviours but he/she may not know the motives behind a person’s actions. Finally, it may be difficult for the sociologist to write down what he/she sees as this may look suspicious. This means the sociologist would have to rely on his/her memory and record the observation at a later time. Examples of research In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juries behaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in the jury room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted and reached their decisions. Williams and other researchers carried out a more recent study. The area of research was football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observe how English football supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers went to the football stadium where matches were being played and observed the behaviour of the football supporters. This study was carried out in 1984. Scottish Further Education Unit 108 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-participant observation - practical exercise (Int 1/Int 2) Instructions for non-participant observation Choose a place and situation where you can observe a group of people. For example, you could sit in the canteen, playground, common room, club, café, shopping centre, or bus. Choose a place, which is public and safe. Decide what behaviour or actions you want to observe. For example: - how many people are in the group - is there a leader in the group - what people wear - where people sit - who speaks to whom - frequency of interaction - non-verbal language such as smiling, laughing, eye contact. Decide the way you will record these observations e.g. notes, charts, and so on. Decide whether you will write down your observations at the time or do it later. Discuss all of the above points with your tutor before starting your observation. If there is a person responsible for the place in which you are doing the observation, then let them know what you are doing e.g. café owner, tutor, manager, etc. You will need to look as natural as possible in the situation therefore you may want to pretend you are reading, writing, doing a crossword, doing homework, drinking coffee, and so on. If the situation feels uncomfortable in any way, you must stop immediately and go to see your tutor. After you have completed this exercise, write some short notes on your experience. For example: - Was the observation useful in telling you something about social behaviour? - What were the difficulties in the exercise? - Was writing observation down easy or difficult? Give reasons for your answer. Scottish Further Education Unit 109 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-participant observation (Int 1) Under each heading one right answer and one wrong answer are given. Identify the right answer by putting a tick in the box and the wrong answer by putting a cross in the box. What is involved in non-participant observation: The researcher takes part in the group he/she is observing The researcher observes others but does not take part One example of non-participant observation Durkheim’s study of suicide statistics Williams’ study of football hooliganism Scottish Further Education Unit 110 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Non-participant observation (Int 2) Quiz From your handouts, class discussion, and textbook answer the following questions. 1. In what way do sociologists carry out non-participant observation? 2. Give two advantages. 3. Give two disadvantages. 4. Give one example of research using non-participant observation. Scottish Further Education Unit 111 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Secondary Research Methods: Official Statistics Tutor Guide on Activity on OHT, Activity and Worksheet on Official Statistics This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover some of the main aspects of using official statistics as a research method. Each can be used in conjunction with the others although each can also be used independently, depending on time and preference. As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Some aspects such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts, revision exercises and so on which have been designed for each level (but which can be used concurrently with 2 levels in one class). This section on official statistics includes the following: 1. An OHT on types of statistical information that can be used. This would provide a starter exercise for the introduction of this research method. 2. The student activity on Social Trends data allows students to examine statistical data at first hand. The exercise is designed to: show students what statistics look like in a simple form allow interaction with the data build investigative skills demonstrate that ‘facts’ need to be interpreted. Students could undertake this exercise individually or in pairs. Tutors will have to provide suitable data from Social Trends, which should be available in school, college or public libraries. HMSO should also have recent copies available for purchase. Some groups of students may need further support from the tutor to undertake this exercise. Doing this as a class exercise and comparing answers and clarifying points along the way could give extra help. Another way of giving extra support would be by directing students to particular columns, rows, years, etc. Relevant pages could also be put on to an OHT to guide students. 3. Thought shower activity and exercise on advantages and disadvantages of official statistics. As a class group or in smaller groups students could brainstorm the advantages and disadvantages of using this method. Answers could be written on a chalkboard or flip chart. Students could then undertake the revision exercise on advantages and disadvantages (one for each level) and this could also be used as formative assessment. Scottish Further Education Unit 112 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Official statistics Police records e.g. recorded crime Births, deaths, marriages Social trends Regional trends Unemployment statistics Hospital waiting lists Scottish Further Education Unit 113 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Statistics Worksheet The government collects statistics on many aspects of economic and social life in the U.K. A good way of finding out about the information collected is to read Social Trends, which is published once a year by the government. Social Trends had been available for the past 30 years. It takes many of the statistics produced by officials and puts them in a way, which makes them easy to read and understand. Look at the pages in Social Trends recommended by your tutor 1. What does this tell you about the trends and patterns in marriage and households? 2. What does this tell you how about the trends in the number of children people are having? 3. What does this tell you about the trends in employment and unemployment? 4. What does this tell you about the types of employment people are in? 5. Looking at your answers what would you say were the main trends in marriage, childbearing and employment in the UK? Scottish Further Education Unit 114 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Advantages and disadvantages of official statistics (Int 2) Worksheet Given below are descriptions of 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using official statistics as a research method. Describe 2 other advantages and 2 other disadvantages of using this method. Advantages Disadvantages 1. May have used a large sample such as 1. Statistics may have been gathered for the Census. a particular purpose, therefore may be biased. 2. 2. 3. 3. Scottish Further Education Unit 115 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written Evidence (e.g. novels, diaries, documents) personal accounts, historical Tutor Guide to OHT, Handout, Examples, and Activity on Written Evidence 1. The OHT is an introduction to the types of written evidence sociologists may use in their research. This is an opportunity for tutor exposition on each type included in the list. It is probable that time constraints will not allow all types of evidence to be covered in depth but it will allow an overview of what can be used. 2. The two examples given are from a novel, North and South, and from a historical source, the 1831 Census. Examples from other novels, diaries or personal accounts could be substituted using a similar model. The novel extract is quite lengthy and the language is quite difficult, but it is a good example of social comment from the industrial revolution. The Michael Anderson study fits in with the themes of the novel as it also examines changes during the industrial revolution. For this reason these two examples could be used in conjunction with each other although they are also designed to be used separately. Intermediate 1 and 2 have not been distinguished in this handout, but support could be given to Intermediate 1 when using this handout, for example, by explaining particular words, phrases, and so on. 3. The handout on advantages, disadvantages, choice, range and scope is designed to cover the area in a broad way. Different types of evidence may have differences but they also have similarities. For example, some diaries may have been written in the knowledge they would be for ‘public consumption’ and therefore may share some of the characteristics of the novel also written for this purpose. Intermediate 1 and 2 have similar content but Intermediate 1 has more support in the text. 4. The worksheet can be used for revision purposes or as a formative assessment and answers discussed in a plenary session. The worksheet covers all the areas discussed. Intermediate 1 and 2 have separate worksheets, with more support given at Intermediate 1 level. Scottish Further Education Unit 116 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written Evidence Includes: novels diaries personal accounts historical documents. Scottish Further Education Unit 117 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written evidence (Int 1/2) The novel The novel is one source a sociologists might use this as a source of evidence for example, marriage, attitudes, political views, poverty, are all found in the novels of Jane Austen, Charles Dickens and Robert Tressell. One example from industrial revolution and written in the middle of the 19th Century is North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell. In this novel the author relates the story of Margaret and her family as they move from a rural south of England village to a Northern town. The story contains a romantic element but also comments on the physical aspects of the town, the relations between workers and owners of factories and the rise of industry and changes it brought about. Read the 3 passages on the next page and make notes under the following headings about: the type of transport that had reached the towns by the mid-1880s. the differences between people from the Northern towns and those from the country or the South e.g. dress, attitudes, transport The reasons the workers had for going on strike. The way the employers intended to break the strike. Scottish Further Education Unit 118 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach The following extract includes the description of a place called Heston, which was near the main town (p. 95). “The next afternoon, about twenty miles from Milton-Northern, they entered on the little branch railway that led to Heston. Heston itself was one long straggling street, running parallel to the seashore. It has a character of its own, as different from the little bathing-places in the south of England as they again from those of the Continent. To use a Scotch word, everything looked more ‘purpose like’. The country carts had more iron, and less wood and leather about the horse-gear; the people in the streets, although on pleasure bent, yet had a busy mind. The colours looked grayer – more enduring, not so gay and pretty. There were no smock frocks, even among the country folk; they retarded motion, and were apt to catch on machinery, and so the habit of wearing them had died out. In such towns in the south of England, Margaret had seen the shopmen, when not employed in their business, lounging a little at their doors, enjoying the fresh air, and the look up and down the street. Here, if they had any leisure from customers, they made themselves business in the shop – even, Margaret fancied, to the unnecessary unrolling and re-rolling of ribbons.” Later, Margaret has a conversation with one of the strikers (p. 182) “But all this time you’ve not told me what you’re striking for” said Margaret, again. “Why yo’ see, there’s five or six masters who have set themselves again paying the wages they’ve been paying for two years past, and flourishing upon, and getting richer upon. And now they come to us, and say we’re to take less. And we won’t” Later, a suggestion is made to one of the factory owners (p. 195) “Can’t you get hands from Ireland? I wouldn’t keep these fellows a day. I’d teach them that I was master, and could employ what servants I liked.” “Yes! To be sure, I can; and I will, too, if they go on long. It will be trouble and expense, and I fear there will be some danger; but I will do it, rather than give in.” Scottish Further Education Unit 119 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written evidence (Int 1/2) Historical sources Michael Anderson used historical data to look at family structure during the industrial revolution. In one study of the family he looked at the Census of 1851 to examine changes in household structure during the industrial revolution. He compared households in rural England and in Preston – a northern industrial town. He found that there were far more lodgers in Preston households and less servants than in rural areas of England where there were fewer lodgers and more servants. This was the time of the industrial revolution and people were moving from the country to the towns. This might be one reason why there were more lodgers in households in the towns and less servants. People were migrating to towns to work in the factories and children were more likely to enter factory work than work as servants. In the country, however, servants and apprentices still made up a large proportion of the household. Questions: 1. What historical evidence did Michael Anderson use to study family structure? 2. What difference did he find between rural England and the town of Preston? 3. Give two possible reasons for the difference, which he found. Scottish Further Education Unit 120 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written evidence (Int 1/2) Advantages Some of the advantages of using written evidence as a method include: It can provide information which otherwise would not be available. For example, the sociologist cannot go back in time and interview people. It can provide a historical view of a topic. It can give a social context to a topic. For example, novels often describe social attitudes of a particular time in history. Disadvantages Some of the disadvantages of using written evidence as a method include: The information may be biased. For example, a novel may be written by a middle class author such as Jane Austen. There may be no way of making sure information is correct. For example, the researcher cannot go back in time and check the information. Many sources are non-sociological. Scottish Further Education Unit 121 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written evidence (Int 1) Worksheet One type of written evidence is given below. Can you identify one other? Write this in the box provided. 1. Diaries 2. Scottish Further Education Unit 122 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Written evidence (Int 2) Worksheet Diaries are one type of written evidence. Can you identify three others? Write this in the box provided. 1. 2. 3. Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of written evidence as a method of research. Advantages 1. 2. Disadvantages 1. 2. Scottish Further Education Unit 123 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Visual Evidence (e.g. film, video, television documentaries, paintings, photographs, magazines) Tutor Guide to Handouts, OHT and Activity on Visual Evidence Int 1/2 1. The first handout summarises some of the types of visual evidence that sociologists might use in research. It covers the main use of visual evidence and then describes four sources of evidence. Each type of evidence can be discussed in turn and, if time allows, some of the following activities could be considered to bring each type of source ‘alive’. A visit could be arranged to an art gallery or museum and paintings examined to ascertain particular features of social interest. Alternatively, if there are art books available in the library these could also be examined. Students could bring in old photographs obtained through parents, grandparents or other family members. Features such as fashion, interiors of houses, number of people in the family, etc., could be examined. Video evidence such as 42+ or other archive material could be considered and points about social attitudes, accent, dress, etc. could be commented on. Magazines could be examined to see what type of messages they carry – particularly their pictorial content. If students or tutors can find old magazines this would also be very useful in tracing social attitudes such as women’s place in the home and in relation to fashion. 2. The OHT summarises the main advantages and disadvantages and tutors can expand on each in relation to the four types of evidence. 3. This activity is designed to bring together the student learning from this method of research. It can be used as a revision tool or as a formative assessment. Intermediate 1 and 2 levels have been differentiated for this worksheet with more support being given at Intermediate 1 level. Scottish Further Education Unit 124 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Visual evidence There are various types of visual evidence that a sociologist might use in sociological research. The main use of this type of evidence is as a historical source. The sociologist may also use visual evidence if other sources such as written evidence are not available. This is a secondary source of data collection. Paintings Paintings can be very useful because often painters/artists reflect scenes of family life, buildings, fashion, what was considered beautiful, and so on. Paintings can often tell us something about such things as work, the rise of industry, farming, serfs, slavery, etc. In this way sociologists can find out something about what went on at a particular time in history. Photographs The photograph is a more recent invention although they can be similar to paintings in the information they give. For example they can show us the way in which people dressed, how wealthy they were, and other things such as what the inside of homes look like. However, like paintings they only tell us about one moment in time. Video/film/T.V. evidence Video evidence or film material can provide more information than a single photograph or painting. For example, a video or film may have sound and therefore the researcher can hear people speaking. It may also show people interacting. Video or films can tell us what people found important, the language they used, what was allowed on film, and social attitudes and behaviour. Magazines Pictures and adverts in magazines are another rich source of information. For example, the pictures may reflect the attitudes of the readers. Pictures in magazines from the 40s and 50s may show women at home with children whilst the man goes off to work. The image of women may be another area where we can study magazines. For example, at one time women were expected to be well rounded whereas in the 80s and 90s magazine pictures tend to show very slim girls as the ideal woman. Scottish Further Education Unit 125 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Visual Evidence Advantages: Useful for historical comparison. It can give information available in print. Can support information. other not existing Can make a comment on social life of the time. Scottish Further Education Unit 126 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Disadvantages: Only a snap-shot of social life. May be difficult to verify what we see. May be biased. May be painted/photographed for a particular purpose. Non-sociological. May be in-depth. Scottish Further Education Unit difficult to explore 127 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Visual evidence (Int 1) Name two types of visual evidence 1 . 2 . Give one reason why a sociologist might choose this method Scottish Further Education Unit 128 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Visual evidence (Int 2) Worksheet Name three types of visual evidence 1 . 2 . 3 . Given below is one advantage and one disadvantage of using visual evidence as a research method. Give two other advantages and two other disadvantages of using this method. Advantages 1 2 3 It can give information not available in print Disadvantages 1 2 3 May be biased Scottish Further Education Unit 129 Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach Resources The following is a list of resources, which may be used, in teaching courses and units at Intermediate 1 and 2 in Sociology. They are an indication of the range of resources available, rather than being prescriptive or making any claim to provide definitive coverage of the curriculum. Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction Sweeney, T., Lewis, J., Etherington, N. (eds) (2003) Unity Publications. ISBN 0954598709 Sociology: A New Approach Haralambos, M. (1996) Causeway Press. ISBN 1973929552 Sociology Alive Moore, S. (2001) Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0859506614 Introduction to Sociology O’Donnell, M. (2000) Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0174481772 Sociology Townroe, C. and Yates, G. (1999) Longman. ISBN 0582257301 Companions to GCSE Sociology Companions to GCSE Social Studies Cambridge Science Books Tracey Hall Cockburn Street Cambridge CB1 3NB. Scottish Further Education Unit 130