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Sociology
Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
(Intermediate 1/2)
Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Contents
Guide to teaching and learning
pack
2
Statement of standards for
Intermediate 1 and
Intermediate 2
3
Introduction to unit and teaching
& learning approaches
6
Sociological vs. common sense
explanations
Theory and applications
9
Primary and secondary sources
Methods of research:
Resources
Scottish Further Education Unit
Functionalism
Marxism
Feminism
Social Action
19
27
31
39
58
Primary:
65
Questionnaires
73
Structured and Unstructured Interviews/ surveys 86
Participant Observation
97
Non-participant observation
104
Secondary:
111
Official Statistics
111
Written evidence
115
Other visual evidence
123
129
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Guide to teaching and learning pack
This teaching and learning pack is designed to aid the practitioner in the delivery of
Sociology at Intermediate 1 and 2 levels. This pack includes:





a general introduction to the unit
a suggested programme of work
ready-to-use material for each of the areas covered in the unit
student activities with accompanying tutor notes on each topic covered in the unit *
a suggested reading list, which covers the main elements within each topic, based on
two basic sociology textbooks. This list can be used as a tutor or student resource #.
*
Please note that these materials will not cover the full ‘hour age’ of the whole unit,
nor will they cover every item in the outcomes, PCs, or range statements: it is
assumed that teachers and lecturers will want to use some of the time for
exposition and discussion, and will supplement this pack with materials devised for
specific groups.
#
Suggested reading for this unit is taken from 2 major sociology textbooks. Material
in these textbooks is designed for new students of sociology, and for those on
introductory courses. The suggested texts are:
Sociology Alive (2nd edition)
Stephen Moore
Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd.
Sociology a new approach (3rd edition)
Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald
Causeway Press.
The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements document and advice
given in the Subject Guide. Lecturers and teachers may wish to amend some of the
material to suit their particular requirements,
In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of student-centred
activities. These are suggested activities only and can be adapted to suit individual, age
and group requirements. A choice of topics has been given in some of the activities where
it is considered that groups may have different interests and sensitivities.
The pack is designed to facilitate bi-level and single-level teaching and learning. Some
material is designed to be used with both levels and some material has been designed for
each level. If material is differentiated it can still be used within one classroom situation if
necessary. Specific details are given in the tutor guides to particular activities.
The term ‘student’ will be used throughout the unit to denote the learner.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
National Unit Specification: Statement of Standards
Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 1)
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards
set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are
mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
Outcome 1
Describe how key sociological theories contribute to an understanding of human social
behavior.
Performance Criteria
a) Make basic distinctions between common sense and sociological knowledge clearly
and correctly.
b) Correctly identify and describe key features of sociological theories, using relevant
examples.
Outcome 2
Describe the main methods of sociological research.
Performance Criteria
a) Describe primary methods of research correctly.
b) Describe secondary methods of research correctly.
Evidence Requirements for the Unit
The Appendix details the content/context for this Unit.
Evidence Requirements apply to the Unit as a whole and, therefore, apply holistically to all
Outcomes of the Unit.
Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance
Criteria to achieve the Unit. The assessment should take the form of an unseen, closed
book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It should be taken on a
single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the form of a range of
restricted response type questions, and should make use of stimulus material as a tool with
which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed.
Candidates will be assessed on two from a choice of four theories.
Sampling
Assessment of the Unit should incorporate appropriate sampling of the Unit content. For
example, if a candidate demonstrates knowledge and understanding of two examples of
primary research methods, and one example of a secondary research method, from a
given list, it is inferred that he/she can demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
other research methods.
Any requirement for reassessment will be based on a different sample from the range of
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
content, where appropriate.
The theories and research methods should be covered prior to candidates being asked to
prepare for assessment. Candidates should not be informed prior to the Unit assessment,
which research methods they will be assessed on.
Achievement can be decided by the use of a cut-off score. The National Assessment Bank
items illustrate the standard that should be applied and also the nature and extent of the
sample to be used. If a centre wishes to design its own assessments for this Unit, they
should be of a comparable standard.
Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach (Intermediate 2)
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards
set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are
mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
Outcome 1
Explain how key sociological theories contribute to an understanding of human social
behavior.
Performance Criteria
a) Distinguish between common sense and sociological knowledge clearly and correctly.
b) Correctly identify and describe key features of sociological theories, using relevant
examples.
c) Analyse the relative similarities and differences of different sociological theories.
Outcome 2
Analyse the main methods of sociological research.
Performance Criteria
a) Describe primary methods of research correctly.
b) Describe secondary methods of research correctly.
c) Analyse the relative advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research
methods.
Evidence Requirements for the Unit
The Appendix details the content/context for this Unit.
Evidence Requirements apply to the Unit as a whole and, therefore, apply holistically to all
Outcomes of the Unit.
Candidates must produce written and/or oral evidence for all Outcomes and Performance
Criteria of the Unit for it to be achieved. The assessment should take the form of an
unseen, closed book, supervised test that should be completed in one hour or less. It
should be taken on a single occasion. The instrument of assessment should take the form
of a range of restricted response type questions, and should make use of stimulus material
as a tool with which to help candidates focus on the question(s) posed.
Sampling
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Assessment of the Unit should incorporate appropriate sampling of Unit content. For
example, if a candidate demonstrates knowledge, understanding and analysis of two of the
theories, she/he should also be able to demonstrate knowledge, understanding and
analysis of the remaining theories.
Similarly, if the candidate demonstrates knowledge and understanding and provides an
evaluation of the relative advantages and disadvantages of three examples of primary
research methods, and one example of a secondary research method, it can be inferred
that this can be done for the remaining research methods.
Any requirement for reassessment will be based upon a different sample from the range of
content, where appropriate.
All theories and research methods should be covered prior to candidates being asked to
prepare for assessment. Candidates should not be informed prior to the Unit assessment
which theories and methods they will be assessed on.
Achievement can be decided by the use of a cut-off score. The National Assessment Bank
items illustrate the standard that should be applied and also the nature and extent of the
sample to be used. If a centre wishes to design its own assessments for this Unit, they
should be of a comparable standard
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Introduction to the Unit and Learning and Teaching
Approaches
Introduction to Unit
This unit is organised with ready-to-use materials and supplemented with a reading list for
the main elements of the unit. The material is organised into discrete areas, which include
the following:
1. Sociological versus common sense explanations.
2. Key features of main sociological theories with similarities and differences between and
applications:
a. Functionalism
b. Marxism
c. Feminism
d. Social Action.
3. Primary and secondary sources of data collection. The student is required to know the
basic difference between these two sources of data collection.
4.



Some of the main methods of research. Teaching and learning should cover:
the main features of the method
the uses of that method
the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
The statement of standards covers some of the main methods used by sociologists
although it is not an exhaustive list. The methods given reflect the broad range of methods
available to sociologists.
In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that two methods for
Intermediate 1 and three methods for Intermediate 2 must be chosen from:
 questionnaires
 unstructured and structured interviews/surveys
 participant observation
 non-participant observation
 case studies: longitudinal studies and comparative studies.
These methods have not been strictly categorised as primary sources as some of these
elements may also be secondary sources.
In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that from the second list, which
are secondary sources, one method for Intermediate 1 and two methods for Intermediate 2
must be chosen from:
 official statistics
 written evidence
 other visual evidence.
The material can be used in any order. It is designed for differential learning for
Intermediate 1 and 2 levels. Differentiation is in layout and level of complexity for some
activities. Where differentiation occurs this is noted in the tutor guides to each section.
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As well as accommodating differential learning levels, some activities have also been given
alternative activities to cater for different age and interest groups. It is up to the discretion of
the tutor, which they use. For example, the questionnaire on smoking may be seen as too
controversial for some groups and therefore tutors/students may use one of the alternatives
on computers or magazines.
Learning and teaching approaches
Methods can be a fairly dry aspect of sociological study. It is also probable that, for most
students, the material discussed will be new. It is suggested therefore that each method is
grounded in as many practical activities as is possible and feasible within the given time
scales. It would also be useful to illustrate the methods with examples of research that
have been carried out. This would engage the interest of the student and will also be a
good preparation for those intending to take sociology to a higher level. It is suggested that
a range of exercises involving individual and group activities be supplemented with tutor
exposition using OHTs, student reading and class discussion.
Concurrent with the advice given in the 1998 Spring Supplement of the Subject Guide, the
following sequence of teaching is suggested for this unit with approximate time scales. The
activities, handouts, and exercises in this teaching and learning pack reflect the proportion
of ‘hour age’ given to each part of the curriculum. However, this is not mandatory and time
allocation, sequence of delivery and use of teaching materials are completely at the
discretion of the practitioner and centre.
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Unit plan:
Introduction to Sociology: Methods Intermediate 1 and 2
General aspects of unit
Aspect
Induction
Time allocation
1 hours
Assessment
2 hours
Reassessment
2 hours
Rationale
Includes: introduction to topic,
programme of work, arrangements
for assessment and reassessment.
This could be 3 hours for end of
unit assessment, or 2 x 1.5 hours,
or 3 x 1 hour.
It is thought that 3 hours would be
adequate as candidates need only
re-sit parts of assessment.
Content
Suggested order, time allocation, rationale, and relationship between outcomes and PCs.
Outcome & PCs
Outcome 1(a)
Sociological
vs.
common sense
Relation to other Time allocation
Outcomes/PCs
Outcome 1
3 hours
Outcome 1 (b) and Outcome 1
(c)
key features of
sociological
theories,
similarities
and
differences
and
applications
16 hours
Outcome 2 (a) and Outcome 2
(b)
primary
and
secondary sources
and methods of
research
and
advantages
and
disadvantages
16 hours
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Rationale
Gives student an
idea
of
what
sociological
explanations are.
To make student
aware
of
key
sociological
theories,
similarities
and
differences
between them and
applications
of
them.
Allows
approx. 3/4 hours
for each theory
Sources,
main
methods, and the
way they are used,
advantages
and
disadvantages.
Allows approx. 3
hours for each
method.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Sociological vs. Common Sense Explanations
Tutor Guide to Student Activity Related to Sociological vs. Common Sense
Explanations
The purpose of this activity is to enable the student to become aware that differences
between sociological and common sense explanations arise from the fact that sociological
explanation is based on study and research whilst common sense explanations are based
on personal experience, taken-for-granted assumptions and commonly held beliefs.
Subsumed within the notion of common-sense explanations is what is termed
'individualistic' or 'naturalistic' explanations. This activity relates to defining distinctions
between these types of explanation and sociological explanation.
It is designed as a stand-alone activity provided some suitable explanation is given
beforehand on the particular nature of sociological explanation. Three OHTs with general
definitions of different types of explanations are provided and have been designed to be
used at the end of the activity, although some tutors may prefer to start with these by way of
introduction.
Students are required to read the explanations given for unemployment and drug misuse
and to answer the questions. The activity is best carried out in a small group or pairs with
one person providing the feedback at the plenary session. The 2 OHTs outlining some of
the factors involved in sociological explanations of body shape and drug misuse can be
used as a summary of these examples. The plenary session can also be used to explore
other examples such as women’s position in society, suicide, and political or industrial
unrest. It is envisaged that the exercise will take 15 - 20 mins with 15 - 20 mins for
feedback.
The accompanying OHTs can be used at the end to summarise the main points of
individualistic, naturalistic and sociological explanations and differences between them.
It should be stressed that some individualistic explanations may in fact occasionally
coincide with the truth. They are, however, non-sociological in how they were arrived at and
their occasional coinciding with sociological evidence is accidental. In particular, the notion
of objectivity and the use of research evidence to support sociological theory are essential
to sociological explanation. Exploring ‘naturalistic’ explanations can also help students to
think about the narrow mindedness of ‘naturalistic’ explanations. For example, the example
of wanting to be slim for reasons other than health as ‘natural’ can be challenged by
evidence from history and other cultures where body shape is viewed very differently. Also,
students can be alerted to the fact that deeming some social phenomena 'natural' can have
the consequence of considering alternatives to be 'unnatural' and inferior.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Sociological vs. Common Sense Explanations
Worksheet
Read the following passages, which each discuss the topic of body shape but are written by
different people. With others in your group, discuss each of the questions, which follow and
prepare a set of answers, which can be discussed with the whole class.
Example 1. A fashion designer
“I just don't design clothes for fatties. If they don't care how they look then I don't want them
advertising my products. Fat is just not attractive. Name me a supermodel that is fat... yeh,
exactly. Everyone knows that fat doesn't get you the guys or the girls. Fat people are lazy,
cheeseburger-eating, beer-swilling, couldn't-care-less couch potatoes – and I know for
sure – I married one and she agrees. They're all the same, the fatsos. If the average size in
the UK for women is now a 16 then I have one thing to say – slim down fatty or wear
someone else's label.”
Example 2. A teenage girl
“Of course I want to be slimmer, who doesn't? I'm fat now but I need to get thin. My doctor
says that I have an eating disorder but it's ok for him to say that – he's a man – nobody
cares if he's thin or not. He says that if I keep going on going days without food I will become
sick but what does he know! The magazines I read are full of diets and full of skinny people.
If they can do it, then so can I. One celebrity lost loads of weight eating only soup and
another one only ate once a day. I'd far rather do that than have my mates talking about my
bum as if it's got a life of its own. Being overweight is unnatural, everybody knows that. If
God had meant us to be fat we'd be born with bibs on.”
Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which parts of the stories relate to people’s own experience?
Would you consider any parts of the stories to be ‘true’?
In what ways are the stories trying to explain body shape?
Can you think of ways in which a sociologist might explain attitudes to body shape?
Can you identify any differences in the way the 2 stories explain body shape and how
a sociologist might explain divorce?
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Sociological
Explanations
Attitudes to Body Shape
of
 Trends and fashions exist in
society over body shape
 Attitudes to body shape vary by
time and by culture
 Fat men used to be commonly
viewed as 'jolly'
 Fat women used to be commonly
viewed as 'healthy' and 'kind'
 The idea of the 'perfect 10' is a
modern concept in western
nations
 Ideas of body shape
influenced by the media
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Sociological vs. common sense explanations
Worksheet
Read the following passages each discussing the topic of drug misuse but written by
different people. Discuss each of the questions, which follow with others in your group and
prepare a set of answers, which can be discussed with the whole class.
Example 1. Extract from an e-mail sent to a live television talk show
Hi,
I was born and brought up in a deprived area in Dundee, before moving on to a similar area
in Edinburgh. Plenty of my pals took drugs but that was up to them. Nobody forced them to
take drugs and nobody forced me to take them so these addicts have only got themselves
to blame. They should stop blaming everybody else and realise that the only reason they
are addicts is that they were stupid and wanted to impress their pals. Anybody that says
there are other reasons for people taking drugs is making excuses for them. Lock them all
up and throw away the key is what I say. They'll not do drugs in an empty cell.
Yours sincerely
Appalled from . . .
Example 2. Speech from a right-wing politician
“It's all the chavs and neds that do hard drugs. You don't see normal people shooting up in
a close; it's all the crazies and crusties. It takes a certain type of person to become a drug
addict and a certain type of person to be strong enough to avoid drugs. I think all female
drug addicts should be sterilised. That way we can get rid of these types and get on with
building a decent society with decent people in it”
Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which parts of the stories relate to people’s own experience?
Would you consider any parts of the stories to be ‘true’?
In what ways are the stories trying to explain drug misuse?
Can you think of ways in which a sociologist might explain drug misuse?
Can you identify any differences in the way the 2 stories explain drug misuse and how
a sociologist might explain it?
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Sociological Explanation of Drug
Misuse
 often linked to poverty
 drug addiction affects all social
classes and 'types' of person
 drug misuse linked to living in
areas of deprivation
 peer pressure
 poorer people have less access to
more expensive, purer and
therefore less addictive forms of
drugs
 drug addiction among the rich
and famous is viewed differently
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Naturalistic Explanations
These explanations assume that
‘natural’
(and
sometimes
God-given) reasons for behaviour
can be identified.
One example would be:
"poor people are ‘naturally’ less
responsible, less intelligent and
immoral because they wouldn't be
poor otherwise".
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Individualistic Explanations
An explanation that tries to explain
a situation solely in terms of the
individual or persons involved in it.
There is no attempt to understand
the situation in terms of wider
social forces.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Sociological Explanations
Explanations that attempt to
explain social behaviour in terms of
wider social forces, processes and
structures, using evidence from
objective research to support these
explanations.
For example people are poor due to
a lack of well-paid jobs
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Theory
Tutor Guide to Student Handout on Theory
This handout is designed to introduce the student to the notion of theory in the study of
sociology. It is assumed that the student may have had no experience of studying theory;
whether sociological or not and so the concept of theory is introduced before moving on to
describe sociological theory. This handout therefore provides a simple introduction to the
theory component of the unit and can be used as a basis for discussion and exposition by
the tutor.
It is envisaged that the reading and discussion/exposition would take no more than 2030 minutes.
What could be considered as some of the main sociological theories are mentioned in the
handout but it would be worth emphasising to students that sociological theory has many
modern variations and some are left to study at Higher and Advanced Higher or other
courses they may take such as HN or degree courses.
Introduction to Sociological Theory
What is a theory?
A theory is like a story made up of ideas and concepts, which is used to try to understand
things about the world in which we live. Any theory stems from ideas that have been, or
could be, tested by some type of research. In other words, strong theories can be backed
by evidence. Although personal experience can be used to support a theory this must be
‘testable’ in some form.
Think, for example, if one of your friends were trying to explain another friend's unusual
behaviour. They may say to you that they "have a theory about that". By saying that, they
mean that they are able to explain the other person's behaviour. You might want to 'test'
such a theory by matching it to evidence that you or your friend may have about that
person. If the theory matches with the evidence you may be willing to accept your friend's
theory as valid. But if it doesn't match with the evidence you are likely to reject the
suggested theory. You might even suggest ways that the theory could be changed to fit with
the evidence, or even suggest an alternative theory of your own
In social sciences theories are only seen as having significance if they are backed up by
objective research and how well they explain aspects of social life. Each theory has its own
ideas, concepts and language.
What is Sociological theory?
Sociological theory is a particular 'story' for explaining how society works. It attempts to
explain social behaviour in terms of the connections between individuals, groups and
society. Social behaviours, processes and structures found in society are analysed using
theory and this helps to explain how society develops and changes.
Is there only one Sociological theory?
No, there are many different sociological theories, which have been developed since
sociology began.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Just as you and your friend in the example above might, between you, develop different
theories and slightly different versions of previous theories based on new evidence coming
to light, so do sociologists debate the usefulness of various theories and amend them or
reject them based on how well they fit with the evidence. That is not to say that all
sociological theories are as useful as each other. Some theorists may continue to make
claims that don't seem to fit with the evidence and some theories are useful for explaining
some things in society but not other things.
One way of seeing similarities and differences between different theories is to put them into
broad categories. By doing this we are able to view some theories as fitting into the
categories Functionalist, Marxist, Feminist and Social Action. This makes it easier for
us to understand how the theorist is looking at the thing under investigation and why they
may be coming to certain conclusions and not others. These categories are what we focus
on for the time being but it is important to note that some theorists are more difficult to place
in a particular category as they use ideas and concepts from more than one area of theory.
Some modern theorists use different theories altogether and some even say that we
shouldn't use theories at all!
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Functionalist Theories
Tutor Guide to Activity on Functionalist Theory – ‘Society like a human body’
Newcomers to the study of sociological theory may find the more abstract aspects rather
‘dry’ and for most, difficult to grasp. The purpose of this exercise is to help the student think
about how society is organised according to the functionalist model. If carried out properly
by students the exercise should highlight a range of factors and issues and these can be
‘tapped into’ by the tutor in any subsequent discussion or exposition of functionalist theory.
It is envisaged that this exercise will take about 20 - 30 minutes with possibly another 30
minutes for feedback in a plenary session. The activity can be undertaken as a ‘stand
alone’ exercise but the OHTs that cover the main features of functionalist theories do
contain the elements covered in this exercise. The salient features, which should be
brought out/discussed using the analogy of the human body as similar to society are:








does society, like the human body, have basic requirements that are necessary for
survival?
is there general agreement on which parts have priority over others?
how does the concept of physical health in the human body compare to how
functionailst view social order?
are there any shared values relating to human bodies that can be compared to shared
values in society? Examples might include:
- modesty, dress codes, 'gender-appropriate' clothing as metaphors for social values
relating to behaviour
can the fact that some parts of the body are given better treatment than others in terms
of pampering and care be applied to inequality in society?
are there people in authority in society who decide what is right and wrong just as there
are health 'experts'?
how can the notion of physical growth and bodily responses such as sweating when too
hot and shivering when too cold be metaphors for social change according to
functionalists?
how can the notion of pain as deviant but healthy be compared to functionalist accounts
of periods of social disorder?
It is clear from this list that having discussed these factors the student will have thought
about the main aspects of functionalist theories of society, and of social structures and
processes.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Functionalist theory
Worksheet
Society like a human body
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Consider all the different parts that make up the standard human body. Most people have
body parts that include: a brain, hair, skin, ears, a mouth, a nose, a neck, a spine, the heart,
lungs, ribs, arms, a stomach, kidneys, the liver, an appendix, spleen, genitals, bowels,
intestines, legs, knees and feet. Are there any missing from the list? These parts are all
present in most human bodies and more or less grow and mature naturally and
independently. The parts have separate contributions towards the whole body but
some parts are more important than others. For example the body would survive in good
health without one of the arms or toes but could not survive without a brain or heart. Some
parts are necessary and others less so.
These parts are kept functioning by certain processes such as the flow of oxygen, blood
flow and blood pressure, brain activity and non-activity (sleep!). Both the processes and the
parts are interrelated and co-dependant on one another for good health and proper
functioning. For example, a very health brain would function poorly if it received too little
blood due to poor circulation and the legs need the heart to pump blood to them or they
would cease to function. All the parts, processes and interrelationships go toward making
up the whole body, which operates as a harmonious, integrated, ordered system. This
system is more than just the sum of all its parts since human bodies need life, a
commodity separate from each of the parts, processes and interrelationships. The proper
functioning of the body is also protected by natural built-in defence mechanisms that alert
the system that something is wrong or is threatening the health of the body. These
include instinct, pain, body temperature and the production of body chemicals such as
adrenalin. All work together to protect the continuity and stability of the health of the
body.
The reproduction of human bodies is natural since all bodies possess reproductive
genitalia. It is inevitable because humans have, to varying degrees, extremely strong
sexual drives. These drives are functional since if reproduction was as appealing to all
humans as studying is to students, then it might never get done and we would all die off!
Humans develop certain codes of conduct, styles and fashions with regard to the
human body. These vary by culture and by time but recent trends with regard to human
bodies in Scotland would be the emphasis on looking after the body by following a healthy
diet, pampering certain parts of the body, keeping or getting a slim and well-toned body.
Some bodies and practices relating to the body are considered by many as 'normal' and
others as 'abnormal'. Certain people, such as doctors and dietitians are given the status of
having authority in matters relating to the body and consulting these people over health
matters is seen by many as natural.
Student task
Read through the above passage a number of times and then rewrite it, replacing all
references to the human body with terms used by functionalists when describing how
society works. Use all the terms in bold in your account.
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Tutor Guide to OHTs on Functionalist and Marxist Theories
These OHTs have been designed to highlight the main elements of structural theories and
to help the learner to evaluate and compare different structural perspectives.
The OHTs have been organised as follows:
Functionalist:
- key theorists
- key features
- strengths and weaknesses.
Marxist:
- key theorists
- key features
- strengths and weaknesses.
These OHTs need to be used with guided reading from textbooks. Reading relevant
sections on theory could be done before using the OHTs, thus using them as a summary of
the main points. On the other hand, the OHTs could be used by way of introducing and
breaking down the main points, thus making the text more accessible.
The key theorists are only a tiny sample of who could be included and have been chosen
because of their significant contribution to these perspectives. Similarly, the key features,
strengths and weaknesses are not exhaustive lists and tutors may wish to make up their
own OHTs using these as a model.
Tutor exposition will, of course, be based round the OHTs and this will depend on tutor’s
own reading, knowledge, preferred emphasis and examples. It may be, that if taught as part
of the Sociology Higher Course, these theories will be exemplified through the topics in
Understanding Human Society 1 and 2.
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Functionalist Theories
Key theorists:
Emile Durkheim on
Deviance and Religion
Suicide,
Talcott Parsons on Family Roles
Robert Merton on Deviance
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Functionalist Theories
Key features:
 Assume
that
behaviour
patterned and not random.
is
 Behaviour is shaped by social
structures.
 Emphasise:Integration
Harmony
Stability
Continuity
Inevitability
Necessity
Function.
 Society is like a human body.
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 All
societies
have
basis
requirements in order to exist
 There is basis agreement over
core values
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Functionalist Theories
Strengths:
 Look at society as a whole.
 Consider that social structures
shape behaviour.
 Good at explaining fact that many
societies and aspects of those
societies tend to 'tick over'
peacefully.
Weaknesses:
 Ignores idea that how we interact
with others shapes our behaviour.
 Finds it difficult to explain conflict
and change.
 Assumes that a lot of agreement
with core values really exists.
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Marxism
Key theorists:
Karl Marx on Capitalism and Class
conflict
Gramsci
on
Hegemony
Capitalism
and
Erik Olin Wright on modern day
class structures
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Marxism
Key features:
 Sees society as a structured
whole.
 The most basic aspect of any
society is how it produces goods.
 Capitalist production is based on
profit
 Communist production would be
based on need groups in society.
 The way capitalism arranges how
it
produces
causes
great
inequality, division of power and
conflict.
 In capitalist production a small
minority own the things needed to
produce (eg. land, factories,
machinery) and these people
make up the 'ruling class'.
 All the rest have to work for the
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owners under their rules and
conditions and are known as the
'subject class' or workers.
 This produces a lot of underlying
conflict in society.
 Marx predicts that eventually the
workers will tire of this and
overthrow the minority ruling
class
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Marxism
Strengths:
 Looks at society as a whole.
 Recognises power interests of
different groups.
 Good at explaining conflict and
change.
Weaknesses:
 Finds it difficult to explain why
many workers put up with their
situation
 Capitalism is possibly now
stronger than ever.
 Overlooks idea that other things
might shape behaviour.
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Feminism
Tutor Guide to Exercise on Exploring Gender Categories And OHT On
Differences Between Sex and Gender
This exercise is a good starting point for making the learner thinks about issues of gender.
It is likely that responses to the questions will elicit some answers that can then be
explored. It is anticipated that students may not guess the true identity of "Shitcost" culture
until reaching Question 7. If this is so then this may further illustrate the cultural aspects of
social constructions of masculinity and femininity, since it may encourage looking at their
own cultural influences with this regard in a new light. In order to facilitate this it is
recommended that tutors 'go with the flow' with the disguised identity under investigation
and perhaps make light of the potentially comical aspects of the term "Shitcost" itself in
order to deflect focus from the strangeness of the term. Of course, some students may pick
up on the fact that the terms are an anagram but it is not anticipated that this would
significantly detract from the aims of the task.
Notwithstanding the debatable status of a distinctive Scottish culture, separate from a
British, or western dominant culture, the task seeks to draw out that, whilst sex is a
biological classification, gender is socially constructed. This latter point features
predominantly on the following OHT, which details the difference between sex and gender.
The point to make here is that although sex is biological/genetic, gender is a social attribute
and therefore constructed socially. This allows the tutor to discuss why sex and gender
have been made the basis for inequality between men and women. In particular it would be
worthwhile discussing with students why biological differences have led to inequality.
Sociological argument acknowledges that biological differences do exist but does not see
this as a justification for inequality. The point that needs to be emphasised is that inequality
is socially constructed. This can then lead into the discussion of feminist perspectives.
The completion of the reading of the passage and completion of answers to the questions
should take around 30 minutes and the subsequent discussion around 45 minutes
depending on time available.
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Feminist theories
Worksheet
Case study: masculinity and femininity among young people in Shitcost culture.
From this case study it should become clear that there is a distinction between sex and
gender. Sex is a biological classification that separates male and female by biological
characteristics such as chromosomal make-up and genitalia. Gender, however describes
the particular cultural understandings over what it means to behave like a male or female.
In other words, there are certain norms, values, expectations and attitudes in any culture
over maleness – or 'masculinity' and femaleness – or 'femininity'. These notions are seen to
vary by culture, within cultures and over time. Therefore, we can assume that biological sex
is naturally fixed and gender is socially constructed.
Many sociological observations have been made on masculinity and femininity in Shitcost
culture and a closer look at the results strongly indicate our need to consider the social
elements of gender roles found there.
In Shitcost culture, many young men use particular forms of speech to indicate masculinity.
They typically avoid words and phrases that would make them appear 'soft' and they
deliberately engage in using words that many elders in the tribe think are rude and
offensive. Young men engage in rituals from time to time to assert their masculinity. They
consume large quantities of a liquid poison made from rotting fruit mixed with sugar whilst
chanting tuneless words of encouragement. One such tune consists of the repetition of the
word "ow" in a rising crescendo until an individual drinks the full contents of the masculine
mixture. Those who show outwards signs of fear or reluctance to engage in the ritual are
castigated as unmasculine and are considered to be sexually suspect. Rumours
concerning such individuals abound in Shitcost culture and superstitious practices such as
refusing to pick up objects dropped on the floor in the company of such individuals are
recommended, lest they spread their feminine tendencies.
Young women in Shitcost culture have in recent years adopted many of these practices,
much to the disapproval of elders in the tribe. This has resulted in what some would term 'a
crisis of femininity' among modern young females in the tribe. Despite this, many young
women in Shitcost culture appear to still hold very clear ideas on what it is to be feminine.
Symbols indicating this include the public display of body areas and clothing not normally
available to those around them and the application of sweet smelling potions and elixirs.
They regard some parts of the female body as unfeminine and they may go to great lengths
to remove these parts or to cover them up. Young women in Shitcost culture believe that
they do such practices for their own satisfaction only and firmly deny all suggestions that
they do this to please young men in the tribe.
Questions:
1. In what ways do young men in the tribe assert their masculinity?
2. Can you think of any words or ways of speaking that might be considered 'soft' in our
culture?
3. Describe rituals among young men in Scotland that attempt to prove masculinity.
4. Why might tribal elders disapprove of the growing trend for young female tribe
members to engage in masculine rituals?
5. The display of what body areas might be seen as 'feminine'?
6. Why might young women in the tribe view certain body parts as unwelcome on a truly
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feminine body?
7. Have you noticed yet that the term "Shitcost" is an anagram of "Scottish"?
8. Now that you know this, what points would you raise in the following discussion with
regard to masculinity and femininity?
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Sex and Gender
Sex/Gender
Male/female
Masculine/feminine
sex is a biological classification
gender is a social construction
ideas of what it is to be male or female vary by
culture and time
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Tutor Guide to OHTs on Feminist Perspectives
This set of OHTs sets out the key theorists, main features and strengths and weaknesses
of feminist theory. It does not include types of perspectives as this is covered at Higher level
and beyond. It would suffice at this level to indicate there are many different strands of
feminist theory but that we only consider the general approach taken at this stage.
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Feminist Theories
Key theorists:
Ann Oakley on gender and culture
and the housewife role
Kate Millet on the politics of sex
Shulamith Firestone on gender and
capitalism
Sylvia Walby and patriarchy
Bell Hooks on sexism and racism
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Feminist Theories: Main features
Different types but all agree that
women
have
always
been
dominated by men
This domination takes place in the
private sphere (at home) and in the
public sphere (at work, in politics
and wider society)
Many use concept of patriarchy structured male-dominated society
Some say we should focus on
equal rights for women
Others say women have no need
for men
Some say we need to establish
matriarchy
–
structured
female-dominated society
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Feminist Theories
Strengths:
 Gives women a voice
 Raises awareness of gender
issues
 Highlights situation of women,
which was being overlooked
 Reveals possible reasons for
women’s position in society
Weaknesses:
 May be ignoring wider factors
such as class.
 Ignores other social categories
such as ethnicity.
 May overlook the oppression and
exploitation of (some) men
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Social Action Theories
Tutor Guide to Student Worksheet on Basic Concepts of Social Action
Theory
The worksheet is designed to be used as an introduction to some of the basis concepts at
the heart of social action theories. Notions of meaning and motive and how these are
communicated by the use of symbols is used in such a way as to make what is often a
complex and abstract area of sociology, more appealing and easier to engage with for
students at this level. It is not required at this level for action theories to be divided into
types but the tutor may feel that some basic overview of the work of a specific author may
help in explaining the basis approach taken. However this should not be done at the
expense of those students who may become confused or overreached at this level.
This exercise could be undertaken individually or in small groups with a plenary session to
emphasise particular points. The exercise should take approximately 20 - 30 mins with
around 30 mins for the plenary. Tutors may wish to make amendments to suit any specific
points they wish to draw out.
Social action theories
Worksheet
Task 1. Consider the following symbols that are used in communications between
humans:

the 'handshake'

the 'V' sign

blowing a kiss

folding the arms

touching nose-to-nose

patting someone's head.
Task 2. For each of the above symbols in turn, list all possible motives and intended
meanings behind the action
Task 3. Again for each of the symbols above in turn, consider how the possible
meanings and motives behind the action may differ when carried out in the
following situations:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
between two friends
between two people having an argument
between strangers
by a worker to his/her boss
between two world leaders meeting in front of live TV cameras.
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Tutor Guide to Handout on Action Theories
This handout and set of questions are designed to introduce the student to the main
features of one approach taken by social action theorist Erving Goffman (1922 - 1982).
Whilst there is no compulsion for students to undertake study of any one social action
theorist, Goffman's work provides an excellent example of how social action theorists in
general analyse the ways humans perceive their social worlds and how this lies at the root
of understanding how they behave. His notion of role taking and behaving in deliberate
ways that convey meaning and interpretation is fundamental to Action approaches.
Students could be encouraged to focus on the basic approach taken by Goffman and how it
is characteristic of the general approach taken by action theories, rather than focus on
differences between this approach and other action approaches
This exercise should be undertaken on an individual basis although answers could be fed
back in a plenary session. This would allow the tutor to explore and clarify particular issues
arising from the reading, and would give some indication to the tutor how well students are
grasping the concepts discussed.
It is envisaged that the reading and answering of questions would take approximately 3040 minutes with a further 20 minutes for a plenary session.
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Action theories
Erving Goffman and the 'dramaturgical' approach to social life
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
" . . . Erving Goffman (1922 - 1982) in his 'dramaturgical model' of social relations . . . sees
social life literally in terms of actors acting, that is, all of us are like actors on a stage,
presenting a play. The 'audience' is made up of other social actors. We are all constantly
play-acting all the time with each other. Thus, when we are interacting with each other, we
adopt strategies to try to ensure our acting is seen by the audience (other people) in a way
that reflects well on us. Essentially, Goffman sees social interaction as involving
'impression management'. A social actor wants to feel that he or she is performing the role
that he or she is playing well".
Source: Sweeney, T., Lewis, J., Etherington, N. (eds) (2003) Sociology and Scotland: An
Introduction (p.25), Unity Publications.
Questions:
1. What does Goffman mean when he views social life as "actors acting"?
2. What is the 'audience' in the play made up of?
3. Who are the actors in the play?
4. What 'strategies' might we develop in our actions?
5. What is meant by the term 'impression management' in relation to how we wish to
portray ourselves?
6. What is meant by the term 'role' that actors wish to perform well?
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Tutor Guide to OHTs on Action Theories
This set of OHTs identifies some key theorists, key features and strengths and weaknesses
of Action theories. These could be used to summarise the main points of the Action
perspective after the student has undertaken guided reading, or used before the student
undertakes such a task. They can be used in conjunction with the previous two activities.
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Action Theories
Key theorists:
Max Weber:
Meaning
Social Action
Motive
G.H. Mead:
Social nature of the
human being
Role-taking
E. Goffman:
Social actors
Life as drama
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Action Theories
Key features:
 Social action arises from how we
interact with others
 We can best explain behaviour by
focusing on individuals.
 Social roles, social actors and
social processes shape human
behaviour.
 Study of individuals and groups
is important to understanding
society.
 To
understand
any
social
behaviour, we must look at the
meaning
and
interpretation
attached to the behaviour.
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Action Theories
Strengths:
 Takes account of the role of the
individual in shaping behaviour
 Good at explaining things on a
small
scale
that
shape
behaviour
 Important in explaining the
meaning and motives attached to
social
behaviour
and
the
interpretation of social behaviour
by others.
Weaknesses:
 Overlooks role of the whole of
society in shaping behaviour.
 Tends to focus on the present
only and overlooks what has
happened in the past.
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 Assumes that humans are always
aware of what their behaviour
means.
 Can be seen as based on ideas
that are difficult to prove.
 Overlooks role of power and
inequality in shaping behaviour
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Tutor Guide to OHTs on Applications of Theories and Similarities and
Differences Between Theories
The following OHTs should be used to support teaching requirements for Intermediate 2
candidates only.
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Applications of theories to social
class
Functionalist:
some degree of inequality is
natural and inevitable since varying
levels of skill and ability are
biological
the relationship between
classes
is
integrative
functional:
the
and
the working class needs the middle
class to supervise it and the upper
class to provide jobs
the middle class needs the working
class to supervise and the upper
class to provide jobs
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the upper class needs the middle
class to supervise workers and the
working class to do the manual
work
Marxist:
capitalism creates two main
opposing classes made up of
owners and workers
the owners control the terms and
conditions of the workers and take
the profits of their labour
workers are 'wage slaves'
the working class will eventually
get together and take control of
production
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Feminist:
some feminists think social class
divisions impact less than gender
divisions
others think it is just as important if
not more
some point out that sociological
studies of social class have
focused on men
some note the plight of working
class women
others see race and ethnicity as
more divisive than class for women
some see capitalist
dominated by men
power
as
Social Action:
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some focus on small-scale impact
of social class on individuals and
groups
social
class
shapes
individuals view their worlds
how
it
impacts
on
meanings,
interactions,
motives,
self
concepts and identity
people 'act out' class roles
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Application
socialisation
of
theories
to
Functionalist:
crucially important in terms of
teaching core norms and values
teaches people how to be social
citizens
produces social order
primary socialisation in the family
secondary socialisation at school,
at work, through the media, by
religion, through peer group and
the law
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Marxist:
socialisation is controlled by the
ruling class
people
are
socialised
into
accepting dominant norms and
values
people are taught to conform and
not to rebel
people are taught that capitalism is
fair and just
socialisation
ideology
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Feminist:
socialisation teaches gender roles
these roles are unnatural but are
presented as natural
men control the socialisation
process and women conform to it
men are taught to be powerful and
women
are
taught
to
be
subservient
Social Action:
socialisation
shapes
how
individuals and groups see the
world
people are taught to see particular
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meanings
socialisation teaches people how
to interact
individuals have the power to
override the affects of socialisation
and to choose to act differently
from what they were taught
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Similarities
and
between the theories:
differences
Functionalist, Marxist and feminist
theories tend to focus on the
'bigger picture'
they
tend
to
assume
that
individuals are shaped by wider
society
Action theorists assume
individuals shape society
that
Functionalist, Marxist and Social
Action theorists have tended to
focus more on studies of men
Feminists focus mainly on studies
of women
Functionalists and some social
action theorists tend to overlook
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deeply rooted conflicts in society
Marxists and feminists focus
primarily on these conflicts and
competing interests in society
Many modern theorists combine
Marxist, feminist and/or social
action approaches
Very few modern theorists openly
use functionalist approaches
It
is
difficult
to
combine
functionalism with any of the other
approaches
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Reading List, Introductory Factors and the Importance of
Methods in Sociology
Tutor Guide to Reading List on aspects of Research Methods
The reading list on the following page is based on two sociology textbooks that are
appropriate for this level of study. There are other textbooks available than the ones given,
but not all cover the aspects required for this unit.
The reading list can be used as a tutor resource or as a student resource, which could be
given out at the beginning of the unit. Although the material in the unit covers all parts of the
curriculum the students will find supplementary reading helpful in understanding the
methods used in sociological study.
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Suggested reading on aspects of research methods
Primary and secondary sources
Sociology Alive (2nd edition)
Stephen Moore
Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd.
pp. 26 - 27 ‘Primary and secondary
sources’
Sociology a new approach (3rd edition)
Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald
Causeway Press.
pp. 42 - 43 ‘Secondary sources’
Methods
Sociology Alive (2nd edition)
Stephen Moore
Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd.
Questionnaires and interviews:
pp. 21 - 25
Observation:
pp. 29 - 30
Comparative studies:
pp. 26
Longitudinal studies:
p. 16
Official statistics:
pp. 27 - 28
Sociology a new approach (3rd edition)
Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, Heald
Causeway Press.
Questionnaires:
pp. 37 - 38
Interviews:
pp. 33 - 35
Observation:
pp. 30 - 33
Comparative studies:
p. 48
Longitudinal studies:
pp. 38 - 39
Official statistics:
p. 47
Secondary written evidence:
pp. 42 - 44
Novels:
p. 42
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Tutor Guide on OHT on the Importance of Methods in Sociology
This activity is designed to introduce the student to the importance of methods and reasons
why they are given so much attention within sociology. The main points provide an
opportunity for exposition and discussion, which can be supplemented by reading or text,
issued by the tutor.
Some of the points that arise from the OHT are:
 The development of sociology as a social science. Reference could be made to ideas
developed by Auguste Comte; the development of positivism and the imitation of the
natural sciences.
 Sociologists today want to gather different types of information eg. numerical and
descriptive and therefore need to employ different methods.
 Methodology is important in supporting theories and hypotheses. Poor methodology
and inappropriate selection of a method can result in invalid results and can be the focus
of criticism of any study.
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Methods
 Sociology is a social science
therefore needs methods to
ensure objectivity.
 Helps the sociologist gather
specific types of information.
 Using a particular method means
it can be used to re-test an idea.
 If the sociologist is trying to prove
a theory then the method chosen
to collect the data is important.
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Tutor Guide to ‘Thoughtshower’ Activity and OHTs on Ways of Gathering
Information
This activity can be used for both Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2, and would also be
suitable for bi-level teaching. It should help the student come to terms with some of the
methods used in sociological research without using technical language.
Students are asked to write down all the ways they can gather information about people,
social behaviour, social attitudes and the development of society. The tutor can then ask
each class member for one item and write these up on a flip chart or chalkboard. As this
does not involve a great deal of explanation on the part of the student it is a good way of
involving everyone in the class.
The tutor can then talk about the items on the list and encourage the class to expand on
some of the ideas expressed. The OHTs can be used at the end to summarise some of the
items by placing them into broad categories. The OHTs serves as a general introduction to
the specific methods that need to be covered in the evidence requirements for this unit.
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Ways of Finding out Information
 ask people
 observe what people do
 look at existing information
 look at historical information
 look
at
magazines
pictures,
videos,
 read novels or personal accounts
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This can involve:
 written information
 verbal information
 visual information
 comparison
societies
of
cultures
or
 study over a period of time
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Primary and Secondary Sources of Data Collection
Tutor Guide on OHTs, Handout and Activity on Primary and Secondary
Sources of Data Collection
The OHTs are an introduction to the main difference between primary and secondary
sources of data collection and some examples of particular methods, which may be
included in these categories. It must be noted, however, that some of the methods included
in the list of primary sources may also be applicable to secondary sources e.g. longitudinal
studies and comparative studies. Tutors may wish to cover this overlap depending on the
ability of the students to work with this degree of complexity.
The handouts reiterate and deepen the content of the OHTs. These could be given out to
read and discuss in a plenary session. Alternatively, they could be given out and used with
the activity outlined below. A third option is to give this out for revision purposes at the end
of teaching this aspect of the unit or course. Two versions, one for Intermediate 1 and one
for Intermediate 2, are given for purposes of differential learning and teaching.
This activity is designed to test the student’s knowledge of primary and secondary sources
of data. This could be used as a worksheet to assess the ideas given in the handout (see
point 2 above). It can also be used for formative assessment or revision purposes. Two
versions, one for Intermediate 1 and one for Intermediate 2, are given for purposes of
differential learning and teaching. In either case the finished grid should reflect the answers
given below.
Advantage
Primary sources
New data collected by
the researcher
Participant Observation
Interviews
Can control information
Secondary sources
Information
already
exists
Official statistics
Novels
May save time and
money as information
has
already
been
gathered.
Disadvantage
May be costly
May be biased
One main feature
Two examples of methods
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Primary Sources
New information collected
sociologist or researcher
by
the
Includes:
 questionnaires
 interviews
 participant observation
 non-participant observation
 longitudinal studies
 comparative studies.
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Secondary Sources
This is when the sociologist or researcher
uses existing information
Includes:
 official statistics
 novels
 paintings
 videos
 photographs
 diaries/personal accounts
 autobiographies.
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Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 1)
When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can use
existing information.
Primary Sources
If a sociologist gathers new information this is known as collecting primary sources of
information. This means the information will be gathered directly by the sociologist or by a
researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point is that whatever method the
sociologist chooses it will new information.
It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea, which has been tested before by
other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still be gathering
their own information rather than using any data which previous sociologists have
gathered.
One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by Eileen Barker. In
this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research. These included
participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.
Secondary Sources
This use of sources, still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they are using
information, which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist will use
information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, police statistics on
crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her own research.
The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings or
novels. Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but the
sociologist can still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what life was like
for families in the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in time and ask people,
but books and paintings may be able to tell the researcher something of what it was like 200
years ago.
Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. For
example, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one-day they will be read.
Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. So,
sociologists must be aware of these factors when using these secondary sources.
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Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 2)
When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can use
existing information.
Primary Sources
If a sociologist gathers new information this is known as collecting Primary Sources of
information. This means the information will be gathered directly by the sociologist or by a
researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point is that whatever method the
sociologist chooses it will new information.
It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea, which has been tested before by
other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still be gathering
their own information rather than using any data which previous sociologists have
gathered.
One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by Eileen Barker. In
this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research. These included
participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.
There are pluses and minuses to using primary sources.
The pluses include:




researcher has some control over the information
researcher decides the way in which information will be gathered
there will be an opportunity to check the kind of information given
researcher may be more aware of bias.
The minuses include:
 it can cost a lot to do research
 it can be time-consuming.
Secondary Sources
This use of sources still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they are using
information, which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist will use
information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, police statistics on
crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her own research.
The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings or novels.
Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but the sociologist can
still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what life was like for families in
the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in time and ask people, but books and
paintings may be able to tell the researcher something of what it was like 200 years ago.
Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. For
example, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one-day they will be read.
Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. So sociologists
must be aware of these factors when using secondary sources.
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There are pluses and minuses to using secondary sources.
The pluses include:
 it can save time for the researcher
 it can save money
 it can give valuable insight into some aspects of social life.
The minuses include:
 the possibility of bias
 the difficulty of checking if the information is accurate.
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Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 1)
Worksheet
Read the following statements. Decide which ones belong to primary sources and which
ones to secondary sources. Put each statement in the correct box.










New data collected by the researcher
Official statistics
Participant Observation
May save time and money as information has already been gathered
Can control information
Information already exists
Novels
May be biased
Interviews
May be costly
Primary sources
Secondary sources
One main feature
Two examples of methods
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2.
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Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 2)
Worksheet
Complete the blank boxes below with statements, which refer to each aspect of primary
and secondary sources. Some information has already been given.
One main feature
Primary sources
New data collected by the
researcher
Secondary sources
Two examples of methods
1.
1. Official statistics
2.
2.
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Questionnaires
Tutor Guide for Activities, Handouts and OHTs on Questionnaires
This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover all the main aspects of using
questionnaires as a research method. Each can be used in conjunction with all the others
although each can also be used independently, depending on time and preference.
As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Some aspects
such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts, revision exercises
and so on which have been designed for each level (but which can be used concurrently
with 2 levels in one class). Some activities have also a range of topics to meet the needs of
different age groups. For example, in the activity on carrying out a questionnaire, smoking,
magazines/comics and computers are all included to give tutors a choice.
This section on questionnaires includes the following:
1. OHT on the main features of questionnaires. Tutors may adapt this as they wish.
This could form the basis of an introduction to this particular method.
2. Handout on open and closed questions. This handout explains to students the
differences between open and closed questions. This should be read by students
and then discussed in a plenary session.
3. The discussion on open and closed questions could be followed using the Student
Activity Sheet. This allows students to examine a series of questions and decide
which ones are open questions and which are closed questions. A plenary session
could be used to provide feedback and discuss the reasons why each is an open or
closed question.
4. Exercise/activity in administration of questionnaires. This exercise would allow
students to try out a questionnaire for themselves, exploring the difficulties of open
and closed questions, and relating questions to results. There are three topics,
which could be explored: smoking, comics/magazines and computers. Students
could have a choice or tutors may prefer to decide this in advance depending on
class group. This section contains:



general instruction sheet for students
a questionnaire which contains open and closed questions (one for each topic)
an activity sheet (one for each topic), which asks students to collate the results
from the questionnaires, they have administered.
5. Thought shower and revision exercise on advantages and disadvantages. If
students have undertaken the questionnaire activity it is hoped that they will have
been able to identify some of the advantages and disadvantages of using this
method. A brainstorming exercise either as a class group or smaller groups could
be undertaken using a chalkboard or flipchart. This could be followed by using the
revision sheets on advantages and disadvantages (sheets for different levels),
which would also be useful for formative assessment purposes.
6. The handout on choice, range and scope could be given out and discussed after the
exercise on advantages and disadvantages. This would enable the student to
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make connections between advantages and disadvantages and the factors
involved in choice, range and scope.
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Questionnaires
 List of pre-prepared questions.
 Can be handed out to people to
complete.
 Can be posted out to people to
complete. These are known as
postal questionnaires.
 Used in social surveys.
 Can find out factual information
e.g. do you buy a daily
newspaper.
 Can be used to find out the
opinion of people e.g. what do you
feel about the Royal Family.
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Questionnaires
Asking questions
There are two types of questions, which can be asked. These are: closed questions and
open questions. Depending on the type of information you want a sociologist will use a
particular type.
Closed questions
These are good for gathering factual information such as how many people own a car or
how many people buy a daily newspaper.
Closed questions will tend to ask for:
 a yes or no answer, e.g. do you own a car?
 numerical information such as how many people live in your house?
 short descriptive information such as what is your favourite T.V. programme?
This means that you can easily quantify the information. For example, if you ask 100
people if they smoke and they answer yes or no then you can simply count the answers. If
20 smoke and 80 do not smoke you can claim that 20% of your sample are smokers and
80% are non-smokers. You could then conclude from this that the majority does not
smoke.
Open questions
These can be used to explore something in depth. For example, they can be used to:




find out the views of people
find out the opinions of people
test attitudes
to find out why people do things.
For example, if you wanted to know why people started to smoke, you would need to ask
people why they started smoking. If you ask 100 people you may find that you get a
different answer from each person. This would make it more difficult to record and make
sense of this information. If you found that you had answers that were similar you might
want to put these under a specific heading. For example, you might have headings such
as: influence of friends; pressure from peer group; your parents smoked; adverts in
magazines; and influence from films and T.V. programmes.
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Questionnaires
Student Activity Sheet
Read each of the questions below. Decide which ones are open questions and
which are closed questions. Write your answer in the space beside each question.
1. Do you smoke?
2. What programmes did you watch on T.V. last night?
3. Do you own a car?
4. How many people live in your house?
5. Did you vote in the last election?
6. Can you tell me why you buy that brand of soap?
7. What are your views on capital punishment?
8. Why did you start smoking?
9. Who did you vote for in the last election?
10. Why did you vote the way you did in the last election?
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Questionnaires (Int 2)
Advantages and disadvantages
Questionnaires are used in many sociological studies. These can be in the form of a postal
questionnaire, which is sent directly to people’s houses. The respondent has to complete
these and return in to the sociologist. Questionnaires may also be directly given out, for
example in the street or shopping centre and people will complete them and hand them
back. Questionnaires might also be used as part of an interview where the researcher asks
people questions and fills in the answers.
Describe 3 advantages to using this method
1.
2.
3.
Describe 3 disadvantages to using this method
1.
2.
3.
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Questionnaires
Asking questions - student activity
 Following tutor guidance, select a partner with whom you will carry out this exercise.
 With the agreement of your tutor decide which topic you will use for this activity.
 Decide when and where you will carry out this activity.
 You will need 10 people to give the questionnaire to. These could be members of the
class, friend, family or other suitable people.
 Depending on your topic you may have to approach more than 10 people to find out if
they are suitable for your questionnaire. For example, if you want to find out the way in
which people are using computers, you first need to find 10 people who use a computer.
 Always explain clearly to people the purpose of the questionnaire and always thank
them at the end for helping you.
 Your tutors will give you copies of a questionnaire or will assist you in making one up.
 Once you have 10 completed questionnaires you should look at your results using the
activity sheet given by your tutor.
This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete
and return to the researcher.
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Smoking
1.
How many cigarettes do you smoke a Fewer than 10
day?
Between 10 - 20
Between 20 - 30
More than 30
2.
Do you think cigarettes are too dear?
3.
At what age did you have your first
cigarette?
4.
Why did you start smoking in the first
place?
5.
Have you ever tried to stop smoking?
6.
If Yes, why have you not managed to
stop smoking?
Yes or No
Yes or No
Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire.
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Smoking questionnaires
Results
Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on smoking. Taking each
question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people who answered
the questionnaire.
How many people smoke:
Fewer than 10
Between 10 - 20
Between 20 - 30
More than 30
How many people think that cigarettes are too dear?
What is the age range for people starting to smoke?
What are the main reasons people gave for starting to smoke?
How many people have attempted to stop smoking?
What are the main reasons for people not managing to stop smoking?
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This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete
and return to the researcher.
Buying a magazine/comic
1.
Which magazine or comic do you buy
regularly?
2.
Why do choose that magazine or
comic?
3.
How much do you pay for your
magazine or comic?
4.
Do you think the magazine or comic is Yes or No
too dear?
5.
What things in the magazine or comic
do you like the best?
6.
Would you buy more magazines or Yes or No
comics if you could afford them?
Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire.
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Magazine/comic questionnaires
Results
Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on buying magazines or
comics. Taking each question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the
people who answered the questionnaire.
What range of magazines and comics do people buy?
What is the range of prices people pay for magazines or comics?
How many people feel they are paying too much for their magazine or comic?
How many people would buy more magazines and comics if they could afford them?
What are the main reasons for people choosing a magazine or comic?
What is the range of things people like in magazines or comics?
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This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Please complete
and return to the researcher.
Using computers and the Internet
1.
Do you have a Yes/No
computer at home?
If no, please go to question 4.
2.
How often do you use Please tick one:
your computer at
every day
home?
nearly every day
sometimes
occasionally
never
3.
What is the main use Please tick one:
of your computer at
word-processing
home?
Internet
leisure
games
other - please specify…………………………
4.
Do you have a Yes/No
computer
at
your
school/college/place
If no, please go to question 7.
of work?
How often do you use Please tick one:
the
computer
at
every day
school/college/place
nearly every day
of work?
sometimes
occasionally
never
5.
6.
What is the main use
of the computer at
school/college/place
of work?
7.
For
those
who At home:
answered
‘no’
to
Question 1 or 4.
What are your main At work:
reasons for not having
a computer at home or
work?
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Computers / Internet Questionnaires
Results
Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on computers. Taking each
question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people who answered
the questionnaire.
1. How many people have access to a computer at home?
2. How frequently did the people in the sample use home computers?
3. How many people have access to a computer at work/school/college?
4. How frequently did the people in the sample use computers at work/school/college?
5. How many people had access to a computer both at home and at
work/school/college?
6. For those who did have access to computers both at home and at
work/school/college, was there any similarity or difference in the frequency of use?
7. What are the main uses of home computers? (greatest first)
8. What are the main uses of computers at work/college/school?
9. What were the main reasons given for not having a computer at home?
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Interviews (Structured and Unstructured)
Tutor Guide to OHTs, Handouts and Activities on Interviews
1. The OHT is an introduction to some of the general features and uses of interviews as a
research method. The information on the OHT is supplemented by
material in the
handouts for this section.
2. There are two related handouts for this section:
One explores specific aspects of both structured and unstructured interviews and
demonstrates the similarities and differences in each aspect of this method of research. It
can be used as an introduction to the method and/or in relation to the activity and/or as a
revision tool.
The second handout highlights the advantages and disadvantages of using this method in
general and also those specific to structured and unstructured interviews. Some of the
material overlaps with parts of the first handout. This handout could be given out for
revision purposes or given as a summary after the activity has been completed and the
advantages and disadvantages of using this method have been discussed for delivery at Int
2.
3. The activity is designed as a practical way of allowing students to experience or
observe the interview method. In this way they can compare differences between
structured and unstructured interviews and discover through the exercise some of the
advantages and disadvantages of using this method.
As this may be a time-consuming activity it is suggested that this be carried out in small
groups 4 - 6 with one interviewer, one respondent and the rest observers of the process. A
structured interview could be carried out. People could then change roles and an
unstructured interview could be carried out. Students could then compare results,
observations, etc., as per list. This should highlight:





differences in recording answers
length of time
attitude to interviewer
leading, agreeing by interviewer
advantages and disadvantages.
Tutors may wish to use the material on questionnaires in the previous section. The
handout on open and closed questions would also be relevant to this method. The
questionnaires could be also be used but would be administered by the student rather than
asking respondents to complete these.
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Interviews
 Carried out by the sociologist or
researcher.
 They are a primary source of data
collection.
 They can be
unstructured.
structured
or
 They can be used in surveys or
opinion polls to gather factual
information.
 They can be used in studies which
try to find out attitudes, feelings
and reasons.
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Interviews (Int 1)
In sociology one method, which is used to gather data, is the interview. It is a popular
method because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly. This method
is known as a primary source of data collection because it involves the sociologist
gathering new information for his/her research.
There are two main types of interviews. The structured interview and the unstructured
interview.
The Structured Interview
This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-set questions.
The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. The questions will
be asked in the same order and in the same way.
The interviewers get training for their job. They try to be objective when asking questions.
This can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachable but not give away
personal feelings. For example, they often have to ask questions about which people feel
sensitive. The interviewer has to be careful not to show approval or disapproval at the
answer given.
Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answer they
think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research were being
carried out into prejudice against black people, the interviewer would need to ask people
what they feel. The people being interviewed might not admit to being prejudice because
they know it is not right to be prejudice.
Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded. This makes it easier for the researcher to analyse
the data gathered. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ may be given a code 1 and a
‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being put into a computer. Although this
saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, it does take more time when making up
the interview questions.
The Unstructured Interview
This type of interview is also carried out face-to-face. In this type of interview the questions
are not pre-set. The interviewer will discuss areas of interest but there is no specific
order to the discussion. The person being interviewed can discuss points in-depth or
make new points.
This can be difficult, as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does not ramble
on about things that are not related to the research. The sociologist has to have a strong
idea of what he/she wants to find out. The recording of unstructured interviews can be
difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and later write down what has been
said. However, some people do not like speaking into a tape.
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Interviews (Int 2)
In sociology one method, which is used to gather data, is the interview. It is a popular
method because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly about the
things, which affect them. This method is known as a primary source of data collection
because it involves the sociologist gathering new information for his/her research.
There are two main types of interviews that sociologists use. The structured interview and
the unstructured interview.
The Structured Interview
This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-set questions.
The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. Each question will be
asked in the same way and in the same sequence.
The interviewers are trained to do interviewing. They try to be objective when asking
questions but this can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachable but
also have to be careful about the tone of their voice and their body language. For example,
if they are asking people views about a sensitive subject they must be careful not to show
approval or disapproval if a particular answer is given.
Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answer they
think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research is being carried out
into racism, then the people being interviewed might not admit to being prejudice because
they feel it would not be acceptable or might give offence.
Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded which makes it easier for the researcher when
analysing the data from the interviews. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ may be
given a code 1 and a ‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being put into a
computer. Although this saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, it does take
some time when making up the interview questions.
The Unstructured Interview
This type of interview is also carried out face-to-face. In this type of interview the
sociologist will have broad areas they wish to discuss but the questions are not pre-set.
There is no sequence to covering particular topics. The person being interviewed can
expand on points or perhaps raise new points.
This can be difficult as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does not ramble on
about things that are not relevant to the research. The sociologist needs a strong idea of
the types of topics he/she needs to cover for the research. The recording of this can be
difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and then write down what has been said
later. This is known as transcribing the interview. However, some people do not like
speaking into a tape and this may make them feel nervous or put them off being
interviewed.
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Interviews (Int 2)
Advantages and disadvantages
As with all methods there are advantages and disadvantages to using interviews as a
method of research. Some advantages and disadvantages are common to both structured
and unstructured interviews. Some advantages and disadvantages are specific to either
structured interviews or unstructured interviews.
Structured interviews
Advantages

Good response rate.

Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes rather
than just factual information.

Can analyse data easily.

Reliability. All people asked the same question in the same way.
Disadvantages

Takes time.

Needs trained interviewer.

Effect of the interviewer on the person being questioned.

High cost.
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Unstructured interviews
Advantages

Good response rate

Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes rather
than just factual information

Can get in-depth information

Opportunity to clarify points, meaning, and so on.

The person being questioned may give new or important
information that the researcher had not considered.
Disadvantages

Takes time.

Needs trained interviewer.

Effect of the interviewer.

High cost.

Person being interviewed may ramble.

No set questions. People may have different ideas of what is
being asked.

Can be difficult to analyse the data.
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Interviewing
Group activity
In your group, and using the sheets and guidance given by your tutor, carry out an
interview activity. You will need:
 one person to be the interviewer
 one person to be interviewed
 the rest of the group to observe the interview.
Guidance for interviewers
Using the sheets given to you by your tutor carry out the interview. You will need to write
the answers given on the sheets. If you are doing a structured interview the questions are
pre-set. If you are doing an unstructured interview the areas to be covered are given but
you will need to decide the way you will ask the questions.
Guidance for students observing the interview
You need to look at the way the interviewer and the person being interviewed are behaving.
Some points you might want to consider are:





the way questions are asked
the tone of voice used
whether the person understands the questions
whether the interviewer is leading the person to answer in a particular way
whether both interviewer and person being interviewed seem relaxed or not.
Group discussion
In your group discuss the results, observations and feelings, which have resulted from this
activity. Some things you might like to consider are:











how easy/difficult was it to ask questions
how easy/difficult was it to answer questions
how easy/difficult is it to make sense of the information given
was there a difference between a structured and unstructured interview
how did it feel to be interviewed
the body language, tone of voice, eye contact between the interviewer and the person
being interviewed
was there any awkwardness in the interview
what are the advantages of using pre-set questions
what are the disadvantages of using pre-set questions
what are the advantages of doing an unstructured interview
what are the disadvantages of doing an unstructured interview.
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Structured interview on Smoking
1.
How many cigarettes do you smoke a Fewer than 10
day?
Between 10 - 20
Between 20 - 30
More than 30
2.
At what age did you have your first
cigarette?
3.
Why did you start smoking in the first
place?
4.
Have you ever tried to stop smoking?
5.
If Yes, why have you not managed to
stop smoking?
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Unstructured interviews on smoking
Areas to be covered:
 Pattern of smoking e.g. how many and when.
 The reasons the person started smoking.
 Why the person continues to smoke.
 What would make the person stop smoking.
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Structured interview on buying a magazine/comic
1.
Which magazine or comic do you buy
regularly?
2.
Why do choose that magazine or
comic?
3.
How much do you pay for your
magazine or comic?
4.
Do you think the magazine or comic is Yes or No
too dear?
5.
What things in the magazine or comic
do you like the best?
6.
Would you buy more magazines or Yes or No
comics if you could afford them?
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Unstructured interview on buying a magazine or comic
Areas to be covered:
 The magazines or comics person buys (could include the names and how often they are
bought).
 Factors which affect the choice of magazine/comic (e.g. price and content).
 Reasons person does not buy more magazines/comics (e.g. price, no time, no interest).
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Participant Observation
Tutor Guide to Handouts and Questions, Examples, and OHTs on Participant
Observation
Handout and questions. These are designed to introduce students to the basic uses,
advantages, disadvantages, range and scope of participant observation as a method of
research. The handout and questions for Intermediate 1 and 2 are similar in content but
Intermediate 1 has more support in terms of the heading that are given and key words
highlighted in bold print. The questions at each level also reflect the quantity of information
required for assessment and the Intermediate 1 questions have more ‘leads’.
A plenary session could be used to discuss the answers and this activity could be
supplemented by the examples of research and the OHTs summarising the advantages
and disadvantages.
Examples of research using participant observation. These handouts give the student two
examples of sociological research in two different areas – education and religion. They can
be used in conjunction with the handout and questions as discussed above or can be given
as supplementary material.
The OHTs provide a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of participant
observation. These reflect the points raised in the handout although the language used in
the OHT is slightly different.
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Participant Observation as a research method (Int 1)
Read the following passage and answer the questions below.
Using participant observation
It is a method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information. It is
a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations and behaviour. In using this method the
sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. When sociologists use
participant observation they have three choices:
 no-one in the group knows their identity or purpose
 the group knows their identity or purpose.
 only key people know their identity or purpose.
Questions
1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method?
2. Why can participant observation be dangerous?
3. List the topics that can be studied using participant observation.
4. Why might this research method be limited?
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Participant Observation as a research method (Int 2)
Read the following passage and answer the questions below.
In using this method the sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. It is a
method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information. When
sociologists use participant observation they have three choices:
 no-one in the group knows their identity or purpose
 the group knows their identity or purpose.
 only key people know their identity or purpose.
Participant observation is a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations and behaviour.
This is because the researcher is observing and taking part in the everyday activities. This
means the researcher can look at the meanings people give to their actions. They can also
study processes and interactions that are taking place.
Researchers who use this method usually have to spend a fair amount of time participating
in the group. In some case this may be as long as 1 - 2 years. This means it can cost a lot
in both time and money. Recording the information is can be difficult as it is not always
convenient to write things down – especially if the researcher’s purpose is not known. If
there is gap in the time between observing behaviour and writing it down then the
information may not be accurate.
Participant observation can be dangerous. For example, some sociologists have studied
gangs or drug taking. In this situation they may be dealing with things that could be
dangerous, deviant and criminal.
If they do not say who they are and people find out this can cause problems. Even if the
group being studied do know it may still be dangerous because other people indirectly
related to the group may not want their activities to be known. For example, a sociologist
could study drug-users who have agreed to take part, but this may involve drug suppliers
who may object to any knowledge about them being known.
Participant Observation has been used in many areas of research. It can be used to
investigate a wide range of topics. For example, participant observation has been used to
carry out research in the areas of education, religion, drug-taking and gang culture.
Questions
1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method?
2. Give two advantages to using participant observation?
3. Why can participant observation be dangerous?
4. Give two other disadvantages to using participant observation?
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Participant Observation (Int 1/2)
Example from sociological research
Paul Willis – Learning to Labour
This is a well-known study by a sociologist called Paul Willis. In this
study Willis wanted to know why middle class children get middle
class jobs and working class children get working class jobs. To
understand this he decided to look at class culture in the education
system and how this related to the types of jobs young people went
into.
Some of this research involved Willis carrying out observation and
participant observation in a school in England. A group of 12
non-academic working class boys was studied intensively. To do
this Willis observed and participated in class, school and other
leisure activities. Willis’s identity and purpose was not kept a
secret. The pupils and teachers at the school knew his study.
The boys he studied were known as ‘the lads’ – a name they gave
themselves. One of the main aims of this group was to have ‘a
laugh’. The lads saw themselves as separate from those who took
school seriously. They named this other group the ‘ear ‘oles’ or
‘lobes’ because they always listened to what was said rather than
making their own rules.
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Participant Observation (Int 1/2)
Example from sociological research
Eileen Barker – The Making of the Moonie: Choice or
Brainwashing
The Moonies is the popular name given to the Unification Church,
which was founded by Reverend Moon. It has become well known
because some people have thought it ‘brainwashes’ members. It
has also been associated with mass weddings where thousands of
couples are married on one day.
Barker was interested in why people joined sects and who they
were. She also wanted to explore Moonie membership from the
point of view of those involved. To do this she used a variety of
methods, which included participant observation.
Barker’s identity and purpose was known to those she studied.
She said that her presence had influenced the behaviour of others.
For example, during the research she had stepped in to help
members of the group and their families who were unhappy that
they had joined. She was also required to give a talk on a religious
topic in which she did not believe. However, her talk had the
unexpected result of convincing another member of the group of
the truth.
Barker’s study showed that most recruits were from ‘respectable’
homes. The Moonies offered the security and warmth found in
childhood but missing from adult life. She also found that most
recruits drop out of the Moonies after a short while.
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Participant Observation
Advantages:
 Looks at behaviour in a ‘natural’
setting.
 Helps the sociologist see things
from the point of view of the
people he/she is researching.
 It allows processes, meanings,
and interactions to be studied.
 Sociologist can look at behaviour
over a period of time therefore
provides more than a ‘snap-shot’.
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Disadvantages:
 It takes a long time to do this type of
study.
 There may be problems with three
distinct stages:
 ‘getting in’
 ‘staying in’
 ‘getting out’.
 Ethical considerations:
 may involve studying people
without
their
knowledge
or
agreement
 may be invading people’s private
lives.
 Researcher’s presence
behaviour of others.
will
alter
 Recording evidence and analysing
the results can be difficult.
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Non-Participant Observation
Tutor Guide to OHTs, Handout, Activity and Exercise on Non-Participant
Observation
1. The OHT is designed to introduce the students to some of the main features of
non-participant observation. Other aspects are covered in the handouts and activities
included in this section. The one point that should be emphasised at this stage is the
difference between non-participant observation and participant observation.
2. The handout on non-participant observation covers all aspects i.e. uses, advantages,
disadvantages, scope, range, choice and examples. For Intermediate 1 the text has
been boxed to aid learning. The handout for Intermediate 2 has very similar context but
this is given in a continuous text form. The handouts can be used as a basis for class
discussion, revision notes, and for the formative assessment/exercise – see Point 4
below.
3. The activity is designed for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 and involves the student
carrying out a non-participant observation. The suggested places should be public and
safe and student must be aware of the rules i.e. not to act suspiciously and to withdraw
if at any time they feel uncomfortable. It would also be advisable to tell the person
responsible if they are carrying this out in a public place e.g. the owner of a café or
teacher responsible for any common-room/playground area.
4. The exercises can be used as a formative assessment to ascertain knowledge gained
during this aspect of study. Two versions of the questions are included. At Intermediate
2 the questions come in the form of a short quiz. In the Intermediate 1 exercise,
students are given one right answer and one wrong answer and they are required to
indicate which is which.
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Non-Participant Observation :
 Sociologist wants
‘natural’ behaviour.
to
observe
 Sociologist does not take part in
the group or activity that is being
observed.
 The people who are being
observed may not know they are
being studied.
 Sociologist observes and records
the observation.
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Non-participant observation (Int 1)
Uses
Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe natural
behaviour.
Usually the observer can be seen by the people he/she is researching although
they may not know they are being observed. For this reason this method is
considered unethical by some.
The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by
doing some activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a
two-way mirror may be used or a microphone planted in a room to record
conversations.
Examples
In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juries
behaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in the
jury room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted and
reached their decisions.
Williams and other researchers carried out a more recent study. The area of research
was football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observe how English
football supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers went to the
football stadium where matches were being played and observed the behaviour of the
football supporters. This study was carried out in 1984.
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Non-participant observation (Int 2)
Uses of non-participant observation
Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe natural behaviour.
Usually the people can see the observer he/she is researching although they may not know
they are being observed. For this reason this method is considered unethical by some.
The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by doing some
activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a two-way mirror may
be used or a microphone may be planted in a room to record conversations.
Advantages
Non-participant observation has the advantage of allowing the sociologist to look at social
behaviour in a ‘natural’ way. This method can also give information that could not be found
by simply asking questions. For example, if you observed a group you observe the
interactions between group members.
Disadvantages
There are many disadvantages to using non-participant observation. One is that the
sociologist cannot check on what he/she sees. Another is that the sociologist will have to
interpret what he/she sees and therefore this may be biased. A third disadvantage is that
the sociologist can observe actions and behaviours but he/she may not know the motives
behind a person’s actions. Finally, it may be difficult for the sociologist to write down what
he/she sees as this may look suspicious. This means the sociologist would have to rely on
his/her memory and record the observation at a later time.
Examples of research
In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juries
behaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in the jury
room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted and reached
their decisions.
Williams and other researchers carried out a more recent study. The area of research was
football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observe how English football
supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers went to the football stadium
where matches were being played and observed the behaviour of the football supporters.
This study was carried out in 1984.
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Non-participant observation - practical exercise (Int 1/Int 2)
Instructions for non-participant observation
 Choose a place and situation where you can observe a group of people. For example,
you could sit in the canteen, playground, common room, club, café, shopping centre, or
bus. Choose a place, which is public and safe.
 Decide what behaviour or actions you want to observe. For example:
- how many people are in the group
- is there a leader in the group
- what people wear
- where people sit
- who speaks to whom
- frequency of interaction
- non-verbal language such as smiling, laughing, eye contact.
 Decide the way you will record these observations e.g. notes, charts, and so on.
 Decide whether you will write down your observations at the time or do it later.
 Discuss all of the above points with your tutor before starting your observation.
 If there is a person responsible for the place in which you are doing the observation,
then let them know what you are doing e.g. café owner, tutor, manager, etc.
 You will need to look as natural as possible in the situation therefore you may want to
pretend you are reading, writing, doing a crossword, doing homework, drinking coffee,
and so on.
 If the situation feels uncomfortable in any way, you must stop immediately and go to
see your tutor.
 After you have completed this exercise, write some short notes on your experience.
For example:
- Was the observation useful in telling you something about social behaviour?
- What were the difficulties in the exercise?
- Was writing observation down easy or difficult? Give reasons for your answer.
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Non-participant observation (Int 1)
 Under each heading one right answer and one wrong answer are given.
 Identify the right answer by putting a tick in the box and the wrong answer by putting a
cross in the box.
What is involved in non-participant observation:
The researcher takes part in the group he/she is observing
The researcher observes others but does not take part
One example of non-participant observation
Durkheim’s study of suicide statistics
Williams’ study of football hooliganism
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Non-participant observation (Int 2)
Quiz
From your handouts, class discussion, and textbook answer the following questions.
1. In what way do sociologists carry out non-participant observation?
2. Give two advantages.
3. Give two disadvantages.
4. Give one example of research using non-participant observation.
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Secondary Research Methods: Official Statistics
Tutor Guide on Activity on OHT, Activity and Worksheet on Official Statistics
This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover some of the main aspects of
using official statistics as a research method. Each can be used in conjunction with the
others although each can also be used independently, depending on time and preference.
As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Some aspects
such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts, revision exercises
and so on which have been designed for each level (but which can be used concurrently
with 2 levels in one class).
This section on official statistics includes the following:
1. An OHT on types of statistical information that can be used. This would provide a
starter exercise for the introduction of this research method.
2. The student activity on Social Trends data allows students to examine statistical data at
first hand. The exercise is designed to:
 show students what statistics look like in a simple form
 allow interaction with the data
 build investigative skills
 demonstrate that ‘facts’ need to be interpreted.
Students could undertake this exercise individually or in pairs. Tutors will have to provide
suitable data from Social Trends, which should be available in school, college or public
libraries. HMSO should also have recent copies available for purchase.
Some groups of students may need further support from the tutor to undertake this
exercise. Doing this as a class exercise and comparing answers and clarifying points along
the way could give extra help. Another way of giving extra support would be by directing
students to particular columns, rows, years, etc. Relevant pages could also be put on to an
OHT to guide students.
3. Thought shower activity and exercise on advantages and disadvantages of official
statistics. As a class group or in smaller groups students could brainstorm the advantages
and disadvantages of using this method. Answers could be written on a chalkboard or flip
chart. Students could then undertake the revision exercise on advantages and
disadvantages (one for each level) and this could also be used as formative assessment.
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Official statistics
 Police records e.g. recorded crime
 Births, deaths, marriages
 Social trends
 Regional trends
 Unemployment statistics
 Hospital waiting lists
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Statistics
Worksheet
The government collects statistics on many aspects of economic and social life in the U.K.
A good way of finding out about the information collected is to read Social Trends, which is
published once a year by the government. Social Trends had been available for the past
30 years. It takes many of the statistics produced by officials and puts them in a way, which
makes them easy to read and understand.
Look at the pages in Social Trends recommended by your tutor
1. What does this tell you about the trends and patterns in marriage and households?
2. What does this tell you how about the trends in the number of children people are
having?
3. What does this tell you about the trends in employment and unemployment?
4. What does this tell you about the types of employment people are in?
5. Looking at your answers what would you say were the main trends in marriage,
childbearing and employment in the UK?
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Advantages and disadvantages of official statistics (Int 2)
Worksheet
Given below are descriptions of 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using official statistics
as a research method. Describe 2 other advantages and 2 other disadvantages of using
this method.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. May have used a large sample such as 1. Statistics may have been gathered for
the Census.
a particular purpose, therefore may be
biased.
2.
2.
3.
3.
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Written Evidence
(e.g. novels, diaries,
documents)
personal
accounts,
historical
Tutor Guide to OHT, Handout, Examples, and Activity on Written Evidence
1. The OHT is an introduction to the types of written evidence sociologists may use in their
research. This is an opportunity for tutor exposition on each type included in the list. It
is probable that time constraints will not allow all types of evidence to be covered in
depth but it will allow an overview of what can be used.
2. The two examples given are from a novel, North and South, and from a historical
source, the 1831 Census. Examples from other novels, diaries or personal accounts
could be substituted using a similar model. The novel extract is quite lengthy and the
language is quite difficult, but it is a good example of social comment from the industrial
revolution. The Michael Anderson study fits in with the themes of the novel as it also
examines changes during the industrial revolution. For this reason these two examples
could be used in conjunction with each other although they are also designed to be
used separately. Intermediate 1 and 2 have not been distinguished in this handout, but
support could be given to Intermediate 1 when using this handout, for example, by
explaining particular words, phrases, and so on.
3. The handout on advantages, disadvantages, choice, range and scope is designed to
cover the area in a broad way. Different types of evidence may have differences but
they also have similarities. For example, some diaries may have been written in the
knowledge they would be for ‘public consumption’ and therefore may share some of the
characteristics of the novel also written for this purpose. Intermediate 1 and 2 have
similar content but Intermediate 1 has more support in the text.
4. The worksheet can be used for revision purposes or as a formative assessment and
answers discussed in a plenary session. The worksheet covers all the areas discussed.
Intermediate 1 and 2 have separate worksheets, with more support given at
Intermediate 1 level.
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Written Evidence
Includes:
 novels
 diaries
 personal accounts
 historical documents.
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Written evidence (Int 1/2)
The novel
The novel is one source a sociologists might use this as a source of evidence for example,
marriage, attitudes, political views, poverty, are all found in the novels of Jane Austen,
Charles Dickens and Robert Tressell.
One example from industrial revolution and written in the middle of the 19th Century is North
and South by Elizabeth Gaskell. In this novel the author relates the story of Margaret and
her family as they move from a rural south of England village to a Northern town. The story
contains a romantic element but also comments on the physical aspects of the town, the
relations between workers and owners of factories and the rise of industry and changes it
brought about.
Read the 3 passages on the next page and make notes under the following headings
about:
 the type of transport that had reached the towns by the mid-1880s.
 the differences between people from the Northern towns and those from the country or
the South e.g. dress, attitudes, transport
 The reasons the workers had for going on strike.
 The way the employers intended to break the strike.
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The following extract includes the description of a place called Heston, which was near the
main town (p. 95).
“The next afternoon, about twenty miles from Milton-Northern, they entered on the little
branch railway that led to Heston. Heston itself was one long straggling street, running
parallel to the seashore. It has a character of its own, as different from the little
bathing-places in the south of England as they again from those of the Continent. To
use a Scotch word, everything looked more ‘purpose like’. The country carts had more
iron, and less wood and leather about the horse-gear; the people in the streets,
although on pleasure bent, yet had a busy mind. The colours looked grayer – more
enduring, not so gay and pretty. There were no smock frocks, even among the country
folk; they retarded motion, and were apt to catch on machinery, and so the habit of
wearing them had died out. In such towns in the south of England, Margaret had seen
the shopmen, when not employed in their business, lounging a little at their doors,
enjoying the fresh air, and the look up and down the street. Here, if they had any
leisure from customers, they made themselves business in the shop – even, Margaret
fancied, to the unnecessary unrolling and re-rolling of ribbons.”
Later, Margaret has a conversation with one of the strikers (p. 182)
“But all this time you’ve not told me what you’re striking for” said Margaret, again.
“Why yo’ see, there’s five or six masters who have set themselves again paying the
wages they’ve been paying for two years past, and flourishing upon, and getting richer
upon. And now they come to us, and say we’re to take less. And we won’t”
Later, a suggestion is made to one of the factory owners (p. 195)
“Can’t you get hands from Ireland? I wouldn’t keep these fellows a day. I’d teach them
that I was master, and could employ what servants I liked.”
“Yes! To be sure, I can; and I will, too, if they go on long. It will be trouble and expense,
and I fear there will be some danger; but I will do it, rather than give in.”
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Written evidence (Int 1/2)
Historical sources
Michael Anderson used historical data to look at family structure during the industrial
revolution.
In one study of the family he looked at the Census of 1851 to examine changes in
household structure during the industrial revolution.
He compared households in rural England and in Preston – a northern industrial town.
He found that there were far more lodgers in Preston households and less servants
than in rural areas of England where there were fewer lodgers and more servants.
This was the time of the industrial revolution and people were moving from the country
to the towns. This might be one reason why there were more lodgers in households in
the towns and less servants. People were migrating to towns to work in the factories
and children were more likely to enter factory work than work as servants. In the
country, however, servants and apprentices still made up a large proportion of the
household.
Questions:
1. What historical evidence did Michael Anderson use to study family structure?
2. What difference did he find between rural England and the town of Preston?
3. Give two possible reasons for the difference, which he found.
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Written evidence (Int 1/2)
Advantages
Some of the advantages of using written evidence as a method include:
 It can provide information which otherwise would not be available. For example, the
sociologist cannot go back in time and interview people.
 It can provide a historical view of a topic.
 It can give a social context to a topic. For example, novels often describe social attitudes
of a particular time in history.
Disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of using written evidence as a method include:
 The information may be biased. For example, a novel may be written by a middle class
author such as Jane Austen.
 There may be no way of making sure information is correct. For example, the
researcher cannot go back in time and check the information.
 Many sources are non-sociological.
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Written evidence (Int 1)
Worksheet
One type of written evidence is given below. Can you identify one other? Write this in the
box provided.
1.
Diaries
2.
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Written evidence (Int 2)
Worksheet
Diaries are one type of written evidence. Can you identify three others? Write this in the
box provided.
1.
2.
3.
Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of written evidence as a method of
research.
Advantages
1.
2.
Disadvantages
1.
2.
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Visual Evidence
(e.g. film, video, television documentaries, paintings,
photographs, magazines)
Tutor Guide to Handouts, OHT and Activity on Visual Evidence Int 1/2
1. The first handout summarises some of the types of visual evidence that sociologists
might use in research. It covers the main use of visual evidence and then describes four
sources of evidence. Each type of evidence can be discussed in turn and, if time allows,
some of the following activities could be considered to bring each type of source ‘alive’.
 A visit could be arranged to an art gallery or museum and paintings examined to
ascertain particular features of social interest. Alternatively, if there are art books
available in the library these could also be examined.
 Students could bring in old photographs obtained through parents, grandparents or
other family members. Features such as fashion, interiors of houses, number of people
in the family, etc., could be examined.
 Video evidence such as 42+ or other archive material could be considered and points
about social attitudes, accent, dress, etc. could be commented on.
 Magazines could be examined to see what type of messages they carry – particularly
their pictorial content. If students or tutors can find old magazines this would also be
very useful in tracing social attitudes such as women’s place in the home and in relation
to fashion.
2. The OHT summarises the main advantages and disadvantages and tutors can expand
on each in relation to the four types of evidence.
3. This activity is designed to bring together the student learning from this method of
research. It can be used as a revision tool or as a formative assessment. Intermediate
1 and 2 levels have been differentiated for this worksheet with more support being given
at Intermediate 1 level.
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Visual evidence
There are various types of visual evidence that a sociologist might use in sociological
research. The main use of this type of evidence is as a historical source. The sociologist
may also use visual evidence if other sources such as written evidence are not available.
This is a secondary source of data collection.
Paintings
Paintings can be very useful because often painters/artists reflect scenes of family life,
buildings, fashion, what was considered beautiful, and so on. Paintings can often tell us
something about such things as work, the rise of industry, farming, serfs, slavery, etc. In
this way sociologists can find out something about what went on at a particular time in
history.
Photographs
The photograph is a more recent invention although they can be similar to paintings in the
information they give. For example they can show us the way in which people dressed,
how wealthy they were, and other things such as what the inside of homes look like.
However, like paintings they only tell us about one moment in time.
Video/film/T.V. evidence
Video evidence or film material can provide more information than a single photograph or
painting. For example, a video or film may have sound and therefore the researcher can
hear people speaking. It may also show people interacting. Video or films can tell us what
people found important, the language they used, what was allowed on film, and social
attitudes and behaviour.
Magazines
Pictures and adverts in magazines are another rich source of information. For example, the
pictures may reflect the attitudes of the readers. Pictures in magazines from the 40s and
50s may show women at home with children whilst the man goes off to work. The image of
women may be another area where we can study magazines. For example, at one time
women were expected to be well rounded whereas in the 80s and 90s magazine pictures
tend to show very slim girls as the ideal woman.
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Visual Evidence
Advantages:
 Useful for historical comparison.
 It can give information
available in print.
 Can support
information.
other
not
existing
 Can make a comment on social
life of the time.
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Disadvantages:
 Only a snap-shot of social life.
 May be difficult to verify what we
see.
 May be biased.
 May be painted/photographed for
a particular purpose.
 Non-sociological.
 May be
in-depth.
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Sociology (Intermediate 1/2): Studying Human Society: The Sociological Approach
Visual evidence (Int 1)
Name two types of visual evidence
1
.
2
.
Give one reason why a sociologist might choose this method
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Visual evidence (Int 2)
Worksheet
Name three types of visual evidence
1
.
2
.
3
.
Given below is one advantage and one disadvantage of using visual evidence as a
research method. Give two other advantages and two other disadvantages of using this
method.
Advantages
1
2
3
It can give information not available in print
Disadvantages
1
2
3
May be biased
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Resources
The following is a list of resources, which may be used, in teaching courses and units at
Intermediate 1 and 2 in Sociology. They are an indication of the range of resources
available, rather than being prescriptive or making any claim to provide definitive coverage
of the curriculum.
Sociology and Scotland: An Introduction
Sweeney, T., Lewis, J., Etherington, N. (eds) (2003)
Unity Publications.
ISBN 0954598709
Sociology: A New Approach
Haralambos, M. (1996)
Causeway Press.
ISBN 1973929552
Sociology Alive
Moore, S. (2001)
Nelson Thornes.
ISBN 0859506614
Introduction to Sociology
O’Donnell, M. (2000)
Nelson Thornes.
ISBN 0174481772
Sociology
Townroe, C. and Yates, G. (1999)
Longman.
ISBN 0582257301
Companions to GCSE Sociology
Companions to GCSE Social Studies
Cambridge Science Books
Tracey Hall
Cockburn Street
Cambridge
CB1 3NB.
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