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A LEVEL
SOCIOLOGY
A-Level Paper 3: Crime & Deviance and Theory & Methods
Topic:
CRIME & DEVIANCE
Booklet 2a:
Theories of Crime, Deviance, Social Order &
Social Control
FUNCTIONALISM &
STRAIN THEORY
FUNCTIONALISM
(Traditional Functionalist Theory, Strain Theory & Subcultural Theory)
As we have seen in booklet 1, functionalists take a normative view of crime, arguing there is consensus over what
behaviours are deemed criminal or deviant, and therefore focus on why some people or groups commit criminal or
deviant acts.
Functionalists see the source of crime and deviance as located in the structure of society (structural theorists), not in the
individual, and that it is an inevitable feature of society. Therefore, social control mechanisms, such as the police and
the courts, are necessary to maintain social order. Many functionalist writers also argue a certain amount of deviance
have a beneficial effect for the maintenance and well-being of society.
In this booklet we will examine the following functionalist theories of crime:
A) Traditional functionalist view of crime
B) Strain theory of crime
C) Subcultural strain theory of crime
Crime is normal… an
integral part of all
healthy societies.
A) Traditional Functionalist View of Crime
So... How can crime be viewed as functional for society?
i) Emile DURKHEIM (1893)- Positive functions of crime
Durkheim saw crime as an inevitable and normal aspect of social life and thus found in all societies, for
two reasons. Firstly, not everyone is effectively socialised into the shared norms and values of society, so some
individuals will be prone to deviate. Secondly, particularly in complex modern societies, there is a diversity of lifestyles
and values, where different subcultures have a distinct set of norms and values which may deviate from the mainstream.
Durkheim and Anomie
A key concept for Durkheim in explaining why crime occurs is anomie, which literally translated, means normlessness.
Durkheim used the word ‘anomie’ to explain crime when someone is insufficiently integrated into society’s norms and
values. Anomie is present when social controls are weak, when the moral obligations that constrain individuals and
regulate their behaviour are not strong enough to function effectively.
He associated a growth in anomie with a shift to a more individualistic society and especially periods of social change.
When individuals may become unsure of norms and rules and consequently at a greater risk of breaking them.
Durkheim saw the period of industrialisation as particularly fertile for the growth of anomie when the agricultural
communities were breaking down as people moved to a more individualistic and industrial society.
For Durkheim, not only is crime inevitable, but it also performs positive
crime as functional in the following ways:

functions for society. He saw
Strengthening collective values. Crime produces a reaction from its members, usually in the form of
punishment. The
function of punishment is not to remove crime in society, but remind people of the
boundaries between right and wrong, leading to ‘boundary maintenance’. Punishments
therefore serve to reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce social solidarity.

Enabling social change. Deviance allows new ideas to develop, enabling society to change and progress.
For Durkheim, all change starts with an act of deviance. Individuals with new ideas, values and ways of living
must not be completely stifled by the weight of social control. There must be some scope to challenge and
change existing norms and values.

Acting as a ‘safety valve’. Crime can release the stresses in a society, providing an outlet for discontent
while avoiding more serious challenges to the social order. Kingsley DAVIS (1937; 1961) argues that
prostitution acts as a safety valve for the release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the
monogamous nuclear family. Similarly, Ned POLSKY (1967) argues that pornography safely ‘channels’ a
variety of sexual desires away from alternatives such as adultery, which would pose a much greater threat to
the family.

Acting as a warning device that society is not working properly, and there is a potential threat to the
social order. For example, high rates of truancy may indicate problems with the education system, or high rates
of child abuse may indicate problems with the family. As a result, policy makers need to establish appropriate
ways of dealing with these issues.
ii) Kai ERIKSON (1966)- Society promotes crime & deviance
Durkheim’s ideas were published quite some time ago, and have been developed more recently by
Kai Erikson. He argues that if crime and deviance perform positive social functions, then perhaps it
means society is actually organised so as to promote crime & deviance. He suggests that the true
function of agencies of social control, such as the police may actually be to sustain a certain level of
crime rather than to rid society of it. (The idea that agencies of social control actually produce rather
then prevent crime has been developed further by the labelling theory of deviance – see
INTERACTIONISM handout).
Societies sometimes also manage and regulate deviance rather then seeking to eliminate it entirely. For example,
demonstrations, carnivals, festivals and student rag weeks all licence misbehaviour that in other contexts might be
punished.
Evaluation of traditional functionalist theory:
Strengths – How has this theory been useful?


Durkheim’s work has made a very important contribution to the functionalist perspective on crime with his concept of
anomie. This has been used by later functionalist authors.
His work was very radical through his belief that a certain amount of crime was necessary for the health of society
as the deeds of some can lead to social change and move society forward, contributing to the ‘march of progress’.
Weaknesses – How has this theory not been useful?
 By saying the crime is beneficial for society, Durkheim ignores the victims. This is a criticism later taken up by the
Realist Theories.
 Durkheim’s explanation of how crime can be functional for society, does not give a sufficient explanation for why
some people commit crimes in the first place.
 Crime does not always produce social solidarity. It may have the opposite effect, for example, the reaction to
Muslims in the wake of the Paris attacks in 2015.
Question Time:
i)
Explain what is meant by ‘boundary maintenance’.
ii) Explain what is meant by the term ‘anomie’.
Example exam question:
Q1: Outline TWO ways crime and deviance can perform positive functions for society. (4)


Make a mental note:
Functionalists tend to accept the image of crime generated by official statistics. They therefore attempt to
explain why the groups that appear commit the most crime do so. Therefore, most functionalist theories
attempt to explain why young, working-class males commit crime.
B) Strain Theory of Crime
As we have seen, traditional functionalist theory takes time to explain why crime exists in society, but there is much less
time spent explaining why some people end up committing crime. In response to this criticism, strain theory attempts to
explain crime as a result of the structure of society.
i) Robert K. Merton (1938, 1968) – Strain to Anomie
Merton suggested crime and deviance is a result of strain between the culture
& structure of society. Meaning, there is strain between:


The goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve.
What the institutional structure of society allows them to
achieve legitimately
We can all achieve the
American Dream… And
by ‘all’ I mean white
middle class folk, of
course!
Merton examined American Society, and found its culture attached great importance to success, in
terms of money and material possessions. Individuals are expected to pursue these
goals by legitimate (legal & acceptable) means, for example, gaining skills and
qualifications. The ideology of the ‘American Dream’ states all members of society
have equal opportunity of success if they try hard enough. Another word for this
would be ________________________.
SYNOPYIC LINK:
Write a very brief paragraph criticising the idea of the American Dream, using your knowledge from last year.
The strain between the cultural goal of money and success, and the lack of legitimate means to
achieve it, produces frustration and pressure to resort to illegitimate (illegal/unacceptable) means
such as crime and deviance. Merton calls this pressure to deviate, the strain to anomie.
This is increased more as American society puts more emphasis on achieving success than the accepted
ways of achieving it. Winning the game becomes more important than playing by the rules.
Merton suggests five ways in which members of society respond to the strain of anomie:





Conformity: Individuals conform to both the success goals and the legitimate means of achieving
them. Merton sees this as the typical response of most Americans.
Innovation: Individuals reject the legitimate means of achieving success and innovate, by
turning to deviant means, in particular, crime. Members at the lower end of the class structure
are most likely to enter this route to success.
Ritualism: Individuals give up trying to achieve success goals because their occupations prevent them
from doing so, but as they have been strongly socialised to conform to social norms they do not turn to
crime. This is typical of members of the lower-middle class in dead-end, routine jobs.
Retreatism: Individuals reject both the goals of success and the normative means of
achieving it. They ‘drop out’ of society, eg. Drug addicts, tramps and habitual drunkards.
Rebellion: Individuals reject conventional goals and means, and replace them with
alternatives. Those who adopt this adaptation wish to create a new society, eg, revolutionaries and hippies.
An easier way to remember this can be seen in the table below:
Conformity
Innovation
Ritualism
Retreatism
Rebellion
Desire to achieve
success goals
+
+
+/-
Desire to conform to
cultural norms
+
+
+/-
Evaluation of Merton’s Strain Theory:
Strengths – How has this theory been useful?


Merton shows how normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the mainstream goals of success, eg money.
His theory explains the patterns shown in official crime statistics. For example, most crime is property crime
as Americans value wealth so highly. Lower-class crime is higher as they have least opportunity to obtain
wealth legitimately.
Weaknesses – How has this theory not been useful?





Merton takes official statistics at face value assuming most crime is committed by the working-class. His theory
cannot explain crime committed by successful middle or upper middle-class members of society who have the
means of success.
His theory is too deterministic, meaning it assumes crime is caused by events outside a person’s control.
Although most working-class people will experience strain to anomie, not all will commit crime. Interactionists
therefore argue a person’s free-will must be taken into account.
Merton assumes there is a value-consensus – that everyone strives for ‘monetary success’, and it is only when
they can’t achieve this that they turn to crime. However, crimes can be committed for a variety of other reasons.
For example, animal rights activists commit crimes because they values the lives of animals more than wider
society.
Linked to the previous criticism, he therefore mainly explains crime as motivated by utilitarian (useful) aims, ie
crime that is committed for material gain, which does not explain crimes such as vandalism or domestic violence.
Merton also ignores the fact that much deviance is committed in or by groups, especially among the young.
ii) Messner & Rosenfeld (2001) - Institutional Anomie Theory
Like Merton, Messner and Rosenfeld (2001) focus on the American Dream. They argue its obsession
with individual money success and its ‘winner-takes-all’ mentality, encourages people to adopt an
‘everything goes’ mentality in the pursuit of wealth. Societies based on free-market capitalism and
lacking adequate welfare provision, such as the USA, high rates of crime are inevitable.
Downes & Hansen (2006) offer evidence to support this view. In a survey of crime rates and welfare spending in 18
countries, they found that societies that spent more on welfare (benefits, etc) had lower rates of imprisonment. This
backs up Messner & Rosenfeld’s claim that societies that protect the poor have far less crime.
Activity:
i) From the following list of activities, identify which response to strain is being demonstrated.
1. Prostitution
2. Drug dealing
3. Drug taking
4. Camping out at St. Pauls Cathedral in protest at wealth and income inequality.
5. Continuing to work in a low paid, low status job, with no chance of career progression.
6. Insider trading
ii) Can you think of any crimes that cannot be explained by Merton’s Strain Theory?
C) Subcultural Strain Theory of Crime
As we have just seen, one of the main criticisms of Merton’s strain theory is
that it fails to adequately explain crime and deviance that occurs as part
of a group, as well as crime that not committed for utilitarian (useful) aims,
such as vandalism or assault.
In response, subcultural strain theory attempts to address these issues and
in doing so explains deviance in terms of the subculture of a social group.
Such theories argue certain social groups develop norms and values which
differ from those held by other members of society, and are provided with
an alternative opportunity structure for those who are denied the chance
to achieve by legitimate means.
i) Albert Cohen (1955) – Status Frustration
Cohen responded to the criticisms of Merton’s theory, but agreed that while lower working-class held the success goals
of mainstream culture they had little opportunity to achieve them due to educational failure and low-skilled, low paid
jobs. As a result they experience status frustration.
They resolve this by rejecting the success goals of mainstream culture, replacing them with an alternative set of norms
and values through which they can achieve success and gain prestige. The result is a delinquent subculture.
Within a delinquent subculture, there is an alternative status hierarchy, where high value is put on deviant activities,
such as vandalism and stealing. The positive rewards are not motivated by money, but by the status and prestige to be
gained in the eyes of their peers.
Evaluation of Cohen’s theory:
Strengths – How has this theory been useful?


Cohen offers an explanation on non-utilitarian deviance among the working class (i.e. does not produce a useful,
ie. monetary reward).
His ideas of status frustration and alternative status hierarchy have been widely used in the sociology of
deviance, for instance by Hargreaves in his analysis of the deviant subculture in the classroom.
Weaknesses- How has this theory not been useful?




Cohen assumes that working class boys start off by sharing middle-class success goals and that crime is a
reaction to that (reactive theory). He ignores the possibility that they never shared these goals in the first place
and so never saw themselves as failures.
Critics have suggested that Cohen exaggerates the values of the group – for instance not all subcultures that
practice vandalism do so out of feelings of spite or contempt. Willis would argue that working class youth
might simply do this for a ‘laugh’.
It has to be pointed out that subcultural theory is overwhelmingly about male subcultures. The British sociologist
Margaret Collinson (1996) argues that subcultural theory may well be missing the obvious point here that
deviance is less to do with subcultures and more to do with masculinity.
Cohen also fails to explain why subcultures take on different forms. For example, there is a huge difference
between gangs who carry our organised crime and those who hand around on street corners. Cloward and
Ohlin developed Cohen’s ideas in an attempt to address this failing (see below).
ii) Cloward and Ohlin (1961) – Illegitimate Opportunity Structures
Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin argues that Cohen fails to explain
why delinquent subcultures take different forms. For example, some are
concerned with theft, others with violence or drug dealing. They suggest
different subcultural responses occur, not only due to unequal access to
legitimate opportunity structures, but also access to illegitimate
opportunity structures.
They argue different neighbourhoods provide different opportunities for young people to learn criminal skills and
develop criminal careers. They identified three types of deviant subcultures that result:
 Criminal subcultures: These emerge in areas where there is an established
pattern of organised adult crime, which provides a ‘learning environment’ for a
career in utilitarian crime. They are exposed to criminal skills and deviant values from
criminal role models, and have the opportunity to rise up the criminal hierarchy.
 Conflict subcultures: These arise in areas with a high population turnover,
resulting in social disorganisation, preventing a stable criminal network from developing.
Access to both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures are blocked, leaving
only loosely organised gangs as a means to success. Violence provides a release for young
men’s frustration, as well as a means of gaining status and respect within their subculture.
 Retreatist subcultures: These tend to emerge among those who have failed to
succeed in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures. As ‘double failures’,
individuals retreat into a subculture organised mainly around drug use.
Evaluation of Cloward & Ohlin:
Strengths – How has this theory been useful?


Cloward and Ohlin developed both Merton’s Strain theory and Cohen’s subcultural theory by showing how
working-class delinquency in not just concerned with material gain, but can be centred on other factors.
They also gave explanations for the variety of delinquent subcultures that emerge.
Weaknesses – How has their theory not been useful?




However, they tend to box off subcultures and ignore overlaps between them. For example, gangs in a conflict
subculture may also successfully deal drugs to make money, as do some drug addicts in the retreatist
subculture.
Feminists argue that women as face as many, if not more, blocked career opportunities as men yet statistically
do not commit as much crime.
Like Merton, Cloward & Ohlin can be accused of providing a reactive theory of subculture, as they assume
everyone starts off by sharing the same mainstream goals.
US functionalist Walter Miller (1962) argues instead, that the lower class has its own independent subculture
separate from mainstream culture, with its own values. This subculture does not value mainstream success in the
first place, therefore is not frustrated by failure.
Although Miller agrees crime and deviance is widespread among the lower class, he argues this arises out of
an attempt to achieve their own goals into which they are socialised. He calls these focal concerns. Examples of
such values would include ‘toughness’, ‘excitement’, ‘autonomy’, ‘smartness’, ‘fate’ and ‘trouble’.
Interactionist David Matza (1964) criticises the idea that individuals are committed to a set of subcultural
values. He argues crime and deviance is a normal experience of most young people; who ‘drift’ in and out of
deviance as they grow up. Rather than being committed to a deviant lifestyle, as subcultural theory suggests,
Matza’s theory of ‘drift’ shows how deviant acts are casual and intermittent rather than a way of life. This fits
with evidence that young people tend to give up delinquent activities as they grow older. However, he did
concede that those from the lower-class are most likely to drift into crime and deviance through fatalism and
lacking something else to do.
Activity:
Q1: The following paragraph from Howard Parker’s research ‘View from the Boys’, conveniently illustrates all six
of Walter B. Miller's 'focal concerns'. Read the extract and fill in the spaces with the appropriate focal concerns:
autonomy
excitement
fate
smartness
toughness
trouble
'The boys go out for a night out. They aren't looking for conflict but should anyone hint that they aren't
man enough to fight ________ or they can't hold their drink then violence ensues: ________. On these
nights out, the boys ability to pick up girls often depends on how they look, and their wit and repartee
________. The essence of a good night out is to have a ‘laff’ ________, but when they go out they have
no idea what's going to happen ________, but they don't want to be pushed around by bouncers or
policemen ________’.
Q2: Matza’s ‘drift’ theory… Where have we seen this idea before?
IN CONCLUSION…
So, how useful is the functionalist perspective overall?
The main problem with the functionalist view of crime, is that it sees official statistics as an accurate
measure of crime. As a result, all its theorists assume that male working-class youths are the main
culprits when it comes to crime and deviance, and therefore attempts to explain why this group do
so.
As a result, functionalists fail to:
 question the validity of statistics,
 question who creates and enforces the law,
 explain crimes committed by other groups in society,
 question whether we do all in fact share the same values of success.
Despite these problems, functionalists have provided ideas that have subsequently been embraced and developed by
sociologist outside the functionalist perspective as well led to debate from more critical theories, leading to a more
comprehensive understanding of crime and deviance. All of which suggests that as an explanation of crime and
deviance it has been useful.
Questions Time:
Briefly outline, in your own words, the following key concepts (do not simply copy from the text):
 STRAIN TO ANOMIE

STATUS FRUSTRATION

ALTERNATIVE STATUS HIERARCHY

ILLEGITIMATE OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES
Exam Style Short Questions:
Q1: Outline TWO different types of subculture that emerge due to feeling of ‘strain’? (4)



Q2: Outline THREE ways people may respond to ‘strain to anomie’. (6)



EXAM FOCUS
Below is an example of the type of questions you may get asked in the exam, based on this
booklet. The key skills are in bold.
Item A
Different groups of sociologists have attempted to locate crime and deviance at the level of subculture. They
argue crime and deviance is more likely to be a group activity.
Whereas some sociologists argue deviant subcultures are a collective response to the inability to achieve the
goals of success by legitimate means, others have argued some groups in society are socialised into a distinct
set of values that differ from mainstream society.
Item B
Functionalism offered one of the first explanations of crime and deviance, which has been developed by
many other sociologists both within and outside of this perspective.
Whereas functionalists see crime and deviance as a natural, inevitable and functional feature of any given
society, other sociologists have questioned whether their explanations are accurate, as they tend to assume
the social distribution of crime as given in official statistics.
A-LEVEL QUESTIONS
Q1: Outline TWO ways crime can have positive functions for society. (4)
Q2: Outline THREE responses to the ‘strain to anomie’. (6)
Q3: Applying material from Item A, analyse TWO explanations of subcultural crime and deviance. (10)
(One explanation or both can come from the functionalist view, but a second can come from another perspective)
Q4: Applying material from Item B and your own knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of the functionalist
perspective to an understanding of crime & deviance. (30)
EXAM GUIDANCE
Q1 & Q2 are short questions and you do not need to include authors/studies/perspectives for full marks.
Do not spend too long on these questions. ‘Get in, get out’!
Q3 should include the following for full marks:
 Brief introduction defining any key concepts in the question and/or identifying the relevant
perspective/theory.
 TWO detailed points that directly address the question. Each making reference to relevant
authors/studies/evidence/theory.
 At least one application of material from the item.
 Brief conclusion that analyses/evaluates the overall information, ie, which point is the most
significant/convincing and/or evidence that undermines the arguments overall.
 10 marks = 15 mins = 1 ½ sides of writing.
Q4 should include the following for full marks:
 Introduction defining any key concepts in the question and outlining the debate you are going to
consider in the essay.
 At least FOUR detailed points that directly address the question. Each making reference to
relevant authors/studies/evidence/theory.
 EVALUATION – There must be alternate arguments and criticisms presented for any chance of
higher marks. This is the key skill you are being assessed on.
 At least one application of material from the item.
 Conclusion that analyses/evaluates the overall information, ie, which argument is the most
significant/convincing and/or evidence that undermines the arguments overall.
 30 marks = 45 mins = At least 4 sides of writing.