Download Chapter 7 Coordinating and subordinating elements

Chapter 7
Coordinating and subordinating
elements
The following sections discuss five types of coordinating and subordinating
elements:
-
the linker !)
coordinating conjunctions based on ,%'!
the coordinating conjunction +-'-'
narrative (coordinating) conjunctions
the subordinating conjunction +E#! and the subordinate clause marker =%8!%&.' *
There is overlap between the coordinating conjunctions. Further, ,%'()) and +-'-' are
used to conjoin both phrases and clauses.
Except for ,%'()) and +-'-', all conjunctions show some kind of pronominal marking,
which is coreferential with the clausal subject. In narrative coordinating
conjunctions, the pronominal element has merged with the conjunction; in the other
conjunctions the subject marker can easily be distinguished from the conjunction
(see section 4.4 for an overview of the morphology of pronominal forms).
7.1. The linker !)
The linker !) encompasses three types of linking elements:
-
the verb linker !) (VL)
the coordinating linker !) (CL), which is attached to the conjunction ,%'
the linker !*#) (L) in enumerations.
The verb linker !) (VL) is used to link two or more verbs in a sentence (see also
Eaton (2003) for a discussion of multi-verb constructions in Sandawe). It can link
two or more main verbs to each other or an operator verb to a main verb. In both
cases, the multi-verb constructions share the same subject.
The following six sentences exemplify linked main verbs. The examples show that
linked verbs generally express separate actions that are carried out consecutively,
e.g. ‘dice+spread out’; ‘meet+grab’. For some cases however, the actions can be
interpreted as part of one event, e.g. ‘go round+move’; ‘get up+run’.
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,-'=!-'!)*
)@-#1+-#)=!/#!)* !-'-',-#5+-'!-#*
CNJ=3PL-CL
dice-3O-VL
(VV.)spread_out-3O
And they diced it and spread it out.
74'4#74#$%'!)* >-'-'*
1+-8J*
+/'6/#*
crow-DEF
run:SG
he
CNJ2.3
6-'!-&'./'/=# -'*
@24'4#6/#!)* 0(%#3/#*
(POSS.)companion=3 meet.3O-VL VV.take:SG
And the crow ran, met his companion and grabbed him.
<-#-#!/'!)* 5/'</'.?-8!)==-'* (%#3/#!)*
0B6-#-#*
hare-DEF
VV.hide.3O
(POSS.)skin-DEF=3 take:SG-VL
1-',-#!!-&!
' 1/'=-'*
elsewhere-LOC-area=3
He took the hare’s skin and hid it somewhere else.*
,%#!%&'=!4'=34#4#4#*
,4'=!4'!)*
+/#1A2%&'*
go:PL=1PL:OPT=EXCL
CNJ=1PL:OPT-CL
over_there
Let’s go, and let’s go over there,
@26-'-#* 09"#$"'!1(2%&'*
,%#!%'!)* ,/'/#!6-'*
pool
go:PL-VL stay:PL-PL2
POSS.other_side-LOC
on the other side of the water and live there.
,%'!)*
5-#-#5-'* +/'6/#!5%#* $%#)=4#=-'!)*
CNJ-CL
dog
he-TOP
.-'!/#*
go_round=3-VL move
!-'!/#=(%#!%&#*
5/8!%'*
later_on=TOP2
climb-3:NR
And the dog is walking round as if he will climb it.
>-'-'*
+/'6/#*
1("'"8!)*
+-';)=-'=-'!)*
1+-8*
CNJ2.3
he
animal-DEF
get_up=3-VL
run:SG
And this animal gets up and runs.
The verb linker is also used in constructions that consist of an operator verb and a
main verb. First, it links the verbs ?-'-#$-' ‘start’, @24'4#5+-' ‘finish’, and 9-'-# ‘be able’
to their (preceding) complements.
("#)* B48!!4&'*
)B/'/!
# )*
9-'-#=("')=1(2/#*
we
enter-VL
be_able=1PL:NR=NEG2
over_there-LOC
We won’t be able to get over there.
+%#!%'*
SUB:CNJ-2SG
):/'/!
# )*
cut-VL
@24'4#5+-#=%'!%&'*
finish=SUB
When you have finished cutting, …
Second, the linker is used to link the operator verb !%#3/# ‘stay (SG)’ or ,/'/# ‘stay (PL)’
to a main verb in a construction which expresses progressive aspect. The operator
verb usually precedes the main verb and serves as the host for the linker.*
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COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING ELEMENTS
!-'-'*
,/'/!
# )*
CNJ2.3PL
stay:PL-VL
0,%#!%'=34#4#4#*
VV.go:PL=EXCL*
And they were going/continued going.
!%#7=-'!-&'*
,/'/!
# )*
09-#$-#!6-#)5%#*
thus=3PL
stay:PL-VL
VV.wait-REC
Thus they were waiting for each other.
The verb linker is usually attached directly after the verb, but it may be preceded by
a subject/modality clitic.
!%#3/#=(%#!)*
,"#6-#=(%&#* .-8,1(+-'*
stay:SG=1SG-VL mash=1SG eat
I sit down and eat mash.
!%#3/#=54'!)*
.-8,1(+-'*
stay:SG=2SG-VL eat
Go on eating!
The linker !) (CL) is attached to the coordinating conjunction ,%'. The linker remains
the final element when a realis or optative subject clitic is attached after the
conjunction. ,%' is most frequently used to conjoin clauses. In enumerations it can
conjoin phrases as well, in which case it precedes the final phrase of a list (see
below at the linker !*#)):
!/'/'/'* !4'4'*
B4'./#!)*
0:-8)J* ,%'=54'!)*
+%'%'(%#*
.%'$%'=%&'(/#* )B4'4#*
yes
illuminate-VL
VV.see CNJ=2SG:OPT-CL
indeed
treat
CNJ2.1PL:OPT
child
Yes, let’s shed light on it and see; and you indeed should treat the child.
+/'(4#* .-'<-#.?48!)*
they
>-'-'* :+4'$4;)*
(POSS.)big_trough-DEF CNJ2.3 be_pierced
>-'-'* 1(2-8!-'-'*
CNJ2.3
)B/'/#* ,%'!)* @24'4#./#*
water-SFOC enter
CNJ-CL
fill.3O
Their trough was pierced, and water entered and filled it.*
As the examples above show, the coordinating conjunction with the linker ,%'!)
conjoins both clauses with shared and different subjects. There is thus some overlap
between the coordinating conjunction with the linker and the verb linker in linked
verbs: both can conjoin verbs with shared subjects, which express consecutive
actions. This is confirmed by a few examples which contain both a verb linker !)
(VL) and the coordinating conjunction with the linker ,%'!) (CL).
94#=056-#-#*
!/'/'*
+%#52%'=34#4#4#*
wait=2SG:HORT
CNJ2.1SG:OPT
go:SG=EXCL
Please wait, so that I go …
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206
,/'=!/'!)*
)B4#5+4'!1(2%#!)*
,/'=!/'!)*
:%#*
CNJ=1SG:OPT-CL
wash_oneself-MID1-VL
CNJ=1SG:OPT-CL
come:SG
and wash myself and come back.
!"#1/'*
.-'-#5+-'* 5"#$%'34'*):4'.4#(4'*
.(/#$-'!1(2=-'!-&'*+-'6/#!)*,%'!)* 1(2-8!5"&'*
yesterday (POSS.)year Kurio (POSS.)people Msera-LOC=3PL fetch-VL
CNJ-CL
drink-CAUS1
Last year, the people of Kurio fetched water and drenched in Msera.
The linking clitic !*#) (L) links elements when they are listed in an enumeration. It is
attached to nouns, proper names or verbs. An enumeration consists of two or more
equivalent elements (nouns, proper names, or verbal clauses). All elements except
the final one contain the linker. The final item in the list may be preceded by the
coordinating conjunction ,%'.
The clitic which is used in enumerations has, as opposed to the verb linker and the
coordinating linker, a high tone, which may be realized on an extra high pitch.
Further, in lists of nouns and proper names the final element is realized on a lower
pitch level.
.-#14#!)*
5-'5"#$"'=54'*
gourd-L
calabash=2SG:OPT take:SG
(%#3/#*
Take a gourd and a calabash!*
,-'1-#<%#!)* !-'N-;!)* ,%'*
,-')=%#</'*
Nathali-L
Nangile
Afa-L
and
Nathali, Afa, and Nangile*
When verbal clauses are linked, the linking clitic is attached to the (clause-final)
verbs. The verbs are realized on the same or a higher pitch level as the preceding
constituents (as opposed to the standard verbal clause). In the example below the
speaker enumerates four activities which are all part of the set of actions that were
carried out. The three linking clitics and the glosses are underlined. The final clause
is introduced by the conjunction >4'4':
9/'/#1+/'/=
# (%&#* 0):"#0):"#!6-#!-#*
6-#5+-#-#=(%&#*
B24;!4&!
# 6-#!-#!)*
many=1SG
firewood=1SG
(SV.)collect-PL1-3O-L
SV.do.RED-PL1-3O
I have done many things:
I collected firewood, *
1(2-'-#!,-'=(%&'*
+%#52%;!)*
,"#6-#=(%&#* 76-',1/#!)* *
home-DIR=1SG
go:SG-L
mash=1SG stir-L
I went home, I cooked mash,*
>4'4'*
1(%#* 0)B4#54#!7!(4'=4'*
.-8,1(+-'
CNJ2.1PL
I
eat
POSS.child.PL-COLL-PL=1PL
and then I ate together with my children.
*
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING ELEMENTS
207
7.2. Coordinating conjunctions based on ,%'!
The conjunction ,%'! forms the basis of two types of conjunctions:
the coordinating conjunction ,%' as the final conjoining element in
enumerations
the conjunction ,%'(!SBJ)!) which conjoins verbs and clauses.*
-
The coordinating conjunction ,%' is used as a final conjunction in enumerations. The
preceding elements in the list are conjoined by the linker !*#). Examine the following
enumeration:
</'/#?-;!)* 52-'1(2-'6-;!)* ,%'*
=/#</#*
Leeba-L
Gele
K’ats’awa-L
and
Leeba, K’ats’awa, and Nangile.*
The coordinating conjunction ,%'(!SBJ)!) conjoins verbs and clauses. The final
element is a coordinating linker !) (CL). The conjunction may occur with a
subject/modality marker, which precedes the linker. The following table
demonstrates series of short and long forms of the coordinating conjunction with
realis subject markers:
Table 32: Short and long forms of the coordinating conjunctions
1SG
2SG
3
3fSG
1PL
2PL
3PL
realis CNJ (short)
,%'(%'!)*
,%'!)*
,-'!)*
,%'(-'!)*
,4'!)*
,/'!)*
,-'!-'!)*
realis CNJ (long)
*
,%'!)=!%'!)*
,%'!)=!-'!)*
*
,%'!)=!4'!)*
,%'!)=!/'!)*
,%'!)=!-'!-'!)*
The coordinating conjunction usually conjoins verbs or clauses with a shared
subject.78
+-'>"#*
0)@"8)!5%'*
.-')=-'9D-'!(!/8* ,%'!)*
14'.?4'!(!/8*
you
POSS.mouth-TOP
long-BE-3
curve-BE-3
CNJ-CL
Your beak is long and has a curve.
78
There is overlap between the use of the coordinating conjunction and the verb linker in
multi-verb constructions (see section 7.1).
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>-'-'*
1+-8=34#4#4#*
,%'!)*
=/#</#* :2-#)5%&=
' -'* B-'5%#* ,%'!)*
!%#3/#!)*
CNJ2.3
run:SG=EXCL
CNJ-CL
baobab up=3
stay:SG-VL eat
land
CNJ-CL
.-8,1(+-'*
He ran!!! And landed on a baobab, and was eating.
In a few examples the coordinating conjunction conjoins clauses that do not share
the subject.
!/'/'/'* !4'4'*
B4'./#!)*
0:-8)J* ,%'=54'!)*
+%'%'(%#*
.%'$%'=%&'(/#* )B4'4#*
yes
illuminate-VL
VV.see CNJ=2SG:OPT-CL
indeed
treat
CNJ2.1PL:OPT
child
Yes, let’s shed light on it and see; and you indeed should treat the child.
7.3. The coordinating conjunction +-'-'
The coordinating conjunction +-'-' conjoins nouns, phrases, and clauses. It does not
carry a pronominal element. The examples below show conjoined nouns and noun
phrases.
74'4#74#$%'*
+-'-'* .4',9D4#* +-'9%#(%&'*
crow
and
jackal
(POSS.)story
The story of Crow and Jackal
.%'(%#54#4#*
beehive
0@2-#.!4#*
+-'-'*
POSS.shape.IT-NMN
and
1(+%8)*
honey
+4#,!4#*
(POSS.)collect_honey-NMN
The construction of a beehive and the collection of honey.
When clauses are linked by this conjunction, they have different subjects. Generally,
the conjunction expresses a contrast:
9-'$-'=34#4#4#* +-'-'* 1"8=1(+/'/#*
wait=EXCL
and
come_out=NEG1.3*
He (Cat) waited a long time, but he (Mouse) did not come out.
>-'-'*
5-#-#5-'* +/'6/#!5%#!-#-#* :2/'/#*
+-'-'* A-#-#*
!%#3/#=1(+/'/#*
CNJ2.3
dog
and good
stay:SG=NEG1.3
he-TOP-SFOC
(SV.)look_at
And the dog watches too, but it is not right.
Finally, the conjunction is used in combination with the adverb A/8!/&' ‘later’. The
conjunction is used to introduce a new sentence in story-telling (cf. the narrative
conjunction in section 7.4 for this function).
+-'-'*
A/8!/&'*
A-#-#*
1"8=1(+"#*
@24'$4'$4;*'!,!("&'*
and
later
good
come_out=NEG1.3fSG
frog-DEF-f
And later she does not nicely come out, this frog.
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COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING ELEMENTS
7.4. Narrative conjunctions
Narrative conjunctions carry a pronominal element which is coreferential with the
subject. The table below presents the paradigms of two series of narrative
coordinating conjunctions (CNJ2): a realis and an optative series. The subject
markers have merged with the conjunction (for an overview of pronominal forms,
see section 4.4).
Table 33: Realis and optative narrative conjunctions
realis CNJ2
(%'%'*
>%'%'*
>-'-'J*56-'-'*
(-'-'*
>4'4'J*54'4'*
>/'/'*
!-'-'*
1SG
2SG
3
3fSG
1PL
2PL
3PL
OPT CNJ2
!/'/*'
54'4'*
56-'-*'
(-'-*'
!4'4'*
56/'/*'
56-'!-'-'J*!-'-*'
The narrative conjunction introduces a new main clause. The subject marker in the
conjunction agrees with the clausal subject, which is either identical to the previous
subject or introduces a new referent. Sometimes the subject marker in the
conjunction provides the only reference to the clausal subject.
1(2"#1(2"8!)==%'*
charcoal-DEF=2SG
(%#3/#!)*
>-'$-'$/#=34#4#4#* >%'%'*
take:SG-VL
draw=EXCL
CNJ2.2SG
1/#1/#056!/#*
take_out-3O
You take the charcoal and you draw; and then you take it out (i.e. the wood of the
opening).
The conjunction is most frequently used in story-telling. It introduces a new
utterance (after a pause) and links this to what happened before.
>-'-'*
,-;)0=6/8!)=!-'-'*
5-#!-&#*
!/#J*
+%#5%#* ,%#!%&!
' ("',=,-#*
B48!,-'*
CNJ2.3
cat-DEF-SFOC
that
INTJ
how? go:PL-1PL:NR=Q
over_there-DIR
And the cat said: “Eh? How shall we get there?”
>-'-'*
?"#$%'!)=!-'-'*
5-#!-&#*
CNJ2.3
mouse-DEF-SFOC
that*
And the mouse said: …
The conjunction can also introduce a main clause after a subordinate clause.
+%#3!-'!-&'*
1("'"#=!-'*
+"#526-'=%'!%&'* !-'-'*
9D-'9D-'(/#!/#*
,%'!)*
):%#,%&'*
SUB:CNJ-3PL
animal-3PL
kill=SUB
roast.FACT-3O
CNJ-CL
eat_meat
CNJ2.3PL
When they killed an animal, they roasted it and ate meat.
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Finally, the narrative conjunction also occurs conjoining two main clauses. As for
this use, there is much overlap with the other coordinating conjunctions.
Occasionally, two types of conjunctions are combined:
(-'-'*
1+-'5/#/!
# 3/#*
,%'!)* (-'-'*
+-#@-'* @24'$4'$4;.!>4'* +-#56=%'*
CNJ2.3fSG
put_on_lap-3O
CNJ-CL CNJ2.3fSG
call
frog-2SG
!%#3/#*
where?=2SG stay:SG
And she holds him on her lap and she calls: “Frog where are you?”
7.5. The subordinating elements +%#! and =%8!%&'
Two elements are used in subordinate clause marking:
-
the subordinating conjunction +%#! (which is not obligatory)
the obligatory subordinate marker =%8!%&.' *
The subordinating conjunction introduces the subordinate clause and consists of the
element +%#! and a subject marker that refers to the subject of the subordinate clause.
The forms of the subject marker are similar to those in the paradigm of realis subject
clitics:
Table 34: Subordinating conjunctions
SUB:CNJ
1SG
2SG
3
3fSG
1PL
2PL
3PL
+%#%!
' (%&'*
+%#!%'*
+%#3!-'J*33-8*
+%#!(-'*
+%#3!4'*
+%#3!/'*
+%#3!-'!-&'J*33-8!-&'*
The subordinate marker =%8!%&' is a clitic which is attached to the final element of the
subordinate clause. When the clitic complex is part of the final element, the
subordinate marker is attached at the end of the complex, e.g. :%#=34#4#4#=%'!%&:'
1/'$/#,%'!,!("&'*
+%#!(-'*
+/#!/&!
# 1(+6-#-#*
train-DEF-f
SUB:CNJ-3fSG
far_away-from.3fSG come:SG=EXCL=SUB
:%#=34#4#4#=%'!%&'*
RRR*
When the train came from far away, …
The two subordinating elements mark both temporal and conditional subordinate
clauses, as exemplified below:
+%#3!-'!-&'*
1"8=%'!%&'*
>-'-'*
5-#!-&#* RRR*
SUB:CNJ-3PL
come_out=SUB
CNJ2.3
that
And when they came out, he (Cat) said: …
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COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING ELEMENTS
,%'!)*
+%#3!-'*
@2"#.-#!,-'=-'* 1+4'4#=%'!%&'* >-'-'* I+">-!)=!-'-'* !-;,!1(2%&'*
CNJ-CL
SUB:CNJ-3
earth-DIR=3
jump=SUB
CNJ2.3
bottle-DEF-SFOC (SV.)break-MID2
And when he jumped down, the bottle broke.
!-8)54'*
A%'?/'1/#* +%#3!4'*
,%#!%'!)*
@24'4#6/#=%'!%&'*
("#)!5%#* RRR*
come_on
quickly
go:PL-VL
meet.3O=SUB
we-TOP
SUB:CNJ-1PL
Come on, if we find him quickly, we as well ….
+%#!%'*
SUB:CNJ-2SG
52-'./#!,%'=%'*
beer-DIR=2SG
1"8=%'!%&'*
come_out=SUB
52-'./#=54'*
beer=2SG:OPT
B2-'-#*
follow
If you go out for beer, go after beer only.
Note that the subordinating conjunction is common, but it may be absent:
@2"#.-#!,-'!5%'*
B4'4#7%&'* @2-'6/#=1(+/'/=
# %'!%&'*
.4',9D4#* >-'-'*
land-DIR-TOP
yet
jackal
fall=NEG1.3=SUB
RRR*
CNJ2.3
It had not yet fallen on the ground, or Jackal...
Generally, the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, but this is not
obligatory:
!-'-'*
,/'/!
# )*
0,%#!%'=34#4#4#*
+%#3!-'*
CNJ2.3PL
stay:PL-VL
VV.go:PL=EXCL
SUB:CNJ-3
And they were going, while some days passed.
)@/8* .-#,/#7!-'-'* 1(+/'/#5%'*
end*
day some-SFOC
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