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Transcript
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY ESSENTIAL LEARNING: Students will be able to explain the four major theoretical perspectives and the historic foundation of sociology. The first person to use the term sociology (in 1838) was French social thinker Auguste Comte. Comte believed that sociology would be able to investigate the social world with the same precision and focus that the “hard” sciences used to explain the physical world (e.g., chemistry, biology, etc.). Ideally, sociology would discover new knowledge about the social world and use this understanding to improve society. Sociology was intended to provide an opportunity to replace ideological, religious and class disputes through the discovery of natural laws of social order and change. The need to understand the forces influencing society was made clear by the social changes brought about by two types of revolutions: industrial and political. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the 1780s and changed the way people interacted with their physical environment and how they made a living. With industrialization came a new form of work—wage labour, an exchange of physical power for money. Also, as people moved from the agrarian countryside to live and work in cities, social relationships between people changed as did society’s political structures. Ultimately, the culmination of these changes was a series of revolutions that sought to re-order the very foundations of society. The American (1775–1783) and French (1789–1799) Revolutions were largely the manifestation of people’s desire for meaningful social change. Social thinkers (e.g., Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1632–1704) and Adam Smith (1723–1790)) had been writing for some time on how social organization should reflect the principles of individual liberty and rights, as opposed to the pre-existing focus on tradition and the moral authority of the monarchy and the Church. in order to protect society from the disastrous effects of future revolutions. In this sense, Early sociologists were concerned with the need to understand these new social dynamics much of early sociology was a conservative intellectual endeavour that viewed social stability as a worthwhile end. Certainly, any insights that would help to protect a society from military conflict is valuable; however, critics of this classical era of sociology suggest that this conservative outlook may have resulted in supporting the status quo and by doing so, maintaining and preserving existing structures of dominance and oppression (e.g., influence of the Church, leadership by the monarchy, etc.). Mrs. Saunders: Sociology 120 Page 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY Early Thinkers 1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857): coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behaviour. He believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of that science were needed to improve society. Having observed the radical changes in French society during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon, Comte feared the excesses of the Revolution may have permanently destabilized France’s stability. He believed that a theoretical and systematic investigation of social behaviours was needed to improve society. 2. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876): translated Comte’s work to English and offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and the United States. Her writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the social problems of contemporary society. She purported that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations on social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society. 3. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is “natural” that some people are rich while others are poor. This prosperous Englishman did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; he merely hoped to understand it better. He argued that societies are bound to change eventually; therefore, no one need be highly critical of present social arrangements or work actively for social change. Mrs. Saunders: Sociology 120 Page 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY Influential Early Modern Thinkers 1. Karl Marx (1818-1893) He was a philosopher and economist, not a sociologist. However, Marx’s contributions to the sociological perspective are unquestioned and his influence on the discipline continues to this day. His writings (e.g., Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital: A Critique of Political Economy, etc.) consistently reflect the plight of the worker and the structured exploitation and ideological oppression they face under capitalism. For sociology, his works provide a great insight into the nature of power in personal and social relationships and how conflict fuels collective action. Marx’s devoted his life to achieving progressive social transformation through collective action (i.e., socialism and communism). Class Struggle: Marx believed that the history of the world is the history of class struggle. Living in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century, he witnessed the industrializing of production in the factories. He saw society as fundamentally divided between classes. He saw the factory as the centre of conflict between the exploiters (the owners of the means of production) and the exploited (the workers or Proleteriat). He believed that an entire system of economic, social, and political relationships maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers. Marx argued that the workers needed to overthrow their capitalist exploiters and take control of the means of production. His ideas would inspire communist revolutions in Russia, China, and Cuba. 2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) He was almost solely responsible for achieving academic credibility for sociology. He insisted that behaviour must be understood within the larger social context, not just in individualistic terms. Durkheim’s contribution to sociology also extends to his theoretical insights into what is called the structural-functional paradigm (also referred to as Functionalism). The principles of functionalism assert that society is a web of interrelated and interdependent structures and systems that are intended to maintain social stability. Arunta: Durkheim developed his fundamental thesis to help understand all forms of society through intensive study of Arunta, an Australian tribe. He focused on the functions that religion reformed for the Arunta and underscored the role that group life plays in defining what society considers religious. He concluded that religion like other forms of group behaviours reinforces a group’s solidarity. Mrs. Saunders: Sociology 120 Page 3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY Anomie: For Durkheim, in times of rapid social change or unrest, individuals may suffer from anomie, a feeling of restlessness and a separation from the larger society. It is the loss of direction that a society feels when social control of the individual behaviour has become ineffective. Anomie occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction, often during times of profound social change. People are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they may resort to suicide. Durkheim saw the consequences of the growing division of labour found in industrial societies as workers become more specialized in their tasks leading to anomie. Durkheim was concerned about the dangers of alienation, loneliness, and isolation anomie might pose for modern societies. He believed sociology should provided direction for social change. 3. Max Weber (1864-1920) Max Weber was a gifted methodologist who demonstrated how applied sociology could benefit society. Through his works, (e.g., The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The Sociology of Religion, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft), Weber was able to apply the concepts of rationality and social action to gain a deeper understanding of society. Weber is perhaps best known for his investigation into the administrative structure known as bureaucracy. Through his rational and applied perspective, Weber was able to demonstrate that while the bureaucratic structure was very efficient, it would, over time, pose a serious challenge to personal autonomy and privacy. With Simmel, Weber’s sociology is also seen as laying the foundations for the symbolicinteractionist paradigm. Verstehen: understanding or insight that Weber believed students should use in their intellectual work. To fully understand behaviour, students need to learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions (how they themselves view and explain their behaviours) Ideal type: a construct, a made-up model that serves as a measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated. The ideal is not best, it is just a standard to measure against. Mrs. Saunders: Sociology 120 Page 4