Download SOCIOLOGY 120 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY
ESSENTIAL LEARNING: Students will be able to explain the four major theoretical
perspectives and the historic foundation of sociology.
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The first person to use the term sociology (in 1838) was French social thinker Auguste
Comte. Comte believed that sociology would be able to investigate the social world with the
same precision and focus that the “hard” sciences used to explain the physical world (e.g.,
chemistry, biology, etc.).
Ideally, sociology would discover new knowledge about the social world and use this
understanding to improve society. Sociology was intended to provide an opportunity to
replace ideological, religious and class disputes through the discovery of natural laws of
social order and change. The need to understand the forces influencing society was made
clear by the social changes brought about by two types of revolutions: industrial and
political.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the 1780s and changed the way people
interacted with their physical environment and how they made a living. With
industrialization came a new form of work—wage labour, an exchange of physical power for
money. Also, as people moved from the agrarian countryside to live and work in cities,
social relationships between people changed as did society’s political structures. Ultimately,
the culmination of these changes was a series of revolutions that sought to re-order the
very foundations of society.
The American (1775–1783) and French (1789–1799) Revolutions were largely the
manifestation of people’s desire for meaningful social change. Social thinkers (e.g., Thomas
Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1632–1704) and Adam Smith (1723–1790)) had been
writing for some time on how social organization should reflect the principles of individual
liberty and rights, as opposed to the pre-existing focus on tradition and the moral authority
of the monarchy and the Church. in order to protect society from the disastrous effects of
future revolutions. In this sense,
Early sociologists were concerned with the need to understand these new social dynamics
much of early sociology was a conservative intellectual endeavour that viewed social
stability as a worthwhile end. Certainly, any insights that would help to protect a society
from military conflict is valuable; however, critics of this classical era of sociology suggest
that this conservative outlook may have resulted in supporting the status quo and by doing
so, maintaining and preserving existing structures of dominance and oppression (e.g.,
influence of the Church, leadership by the monarchy, etc.).
Mrs. Saunders: Sociology 120
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY
Early Thinkers
1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857): coined the term sociology to apply to the science of
human behaviour. He believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic
investigation of that science were needed to improve society. Having observed the
radical changes in French society during the French Revolution and the reign of
Napoleon, Comte feared the excesses of the Revolution may have permanently
destabilized France’s stability. He believed that a theoretical and systematic
investigation of social behaviours was needed to improve society.
2. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876): translated Comte’s work to English and offered
insightful observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and
the United States. Her writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade,
and population could have on the social problems of contemporary society. She
purported that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations on social
conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society.
3. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the
“survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is “natural” that some people are rich while
others are poor. This prosperous Englishman did not feel compelled to correct or
improve society; he merely hoped to understand it better. He argued that societies are
bound to change eventually; therefore, no one need be highly critical of present social
arrangements or work actively for social change.
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY
Influential Early Modern Thinkers
1. Karl Marx (1818-1893)
 He was a philosopher and economist, not a sociologist. However, Marx’s
contributions to the sociological perspective are unquestioned and his influence on
the discipline continues to this day.
 His writings (e.g., Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital: A Critique of Political Economy,
etc.) consistently reflect the plight of the worker and the structured exploitation and
ideological oppression they face under capitalism.
 For sociology, his works provide a great insight into the nature of power in personal
and social relationships and how conflict fuels collective action. Marx’s devoted his
life to achieving progressive social transformation through collective action (i.e.,
socialism and communism).
 Class Struggle: Marx believed that the history of the world is the history of class
struggle. Living in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century, he witnessed the
industrializing of production in the factories. He saw society as fundamentally
divided between classes. He saw the factory as the centre of conflict between the
exploiters (the owners of the means of production) and the exploited (the workers
or Proleteriat). He believed that an entire system of economic, social, and political
relationships maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers.
Marx argued that the workers needed to overthrow their capitalist exploiters and
take control of the means of production. His ideas would inspire communist
revolutions in Russia, China, and Cuba.
2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
 He was almost solely responsible for achieving academic credibility for sociology.
 He insisted that behaviour must be understood within the larger social context, not
just in individualistic terms. Durkheim’s contribution to sociology also extends to his
theoretical insights into what is called the structural-functional paradigm (also
referred to as Functionalism). The principles of functionalism assert that society is a
web of interrelated and interdependent structures and systems that are intended to
maintain social stability.
 Arunta: Durkheim developed his fundamental thesis to help understand all forms of
society through intensive study of Arunta, an Australian tribe. He focused on the
functions that religion reformed for the Arunta and underscored the role that group
life plays in defining what society considers religious. He concluded that religion like
other forms of group behaviours reinforces a group’s solidarity.
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY
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Anomie: For Durkheim, in times of rapid social change or unrest, individuals may
suffer from anomie, a feeling of restlessness and a separation from the larger
society. It is the loss of direction that a society feels when social control of the
individual behaviour has become ineffective. Anomie occurs when people have lost
their sense of purpose or direction, often during times of profound social change.
People are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that
they may resort to suicide. Durkheim saw the consequences of the growing division
of labour found in industrial societies as workers become more specialized in their
tasks leading to anomie.
Durkheim was concerned about the dangers of alienation, loneliness, and isolation
anomie might pose for modern societies. He believed sociology should provided
direction for social change.
3. Max Weber (1864-1920)
 Max Weber was a gifted methodologist who demonstrated how applied sociology
could benefit society.
 Through his works, (e.g., The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The
Sociology of Religion, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft), Weber was able to apply the
concepts of rationality and social action to gain a deeper understanding of society.
 Weber is perhaps best known for his investigation into the administrative structure
known as bureaucracy. Through his rational and applied perspective, Weber was
able to demonstrate that while the bureaucratic structure was very efficient, it
would, over time, pose a serious challenge to personal autonomy and privacy. With
Simmel, Weber’s sociology is also seen as laying the foundations for the symbolicinteractionist paradigm.
 Verstehen: understanding or insight that Weber believed students should use in
their intellectual work. To fully understand behaviour, students need to learn the
subjective meanings people attach to their actions (how they themselves view and
explain their behaviours)
 Ideal type: a construct, a made-up model that serves as a measuring rod against
which actual cases can be evaluated. The ideal is not best, it is just a standard to
measure against.
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