Download THE ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The Origins of the 1st World War
Key Issue: Why were there 2 armed camps in Europe in 1914?
a) Development of the armed camps
By 1907 the major European powers were clearly divided into 2 armed camps. These were the:
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
Triple Entente: Britain, France and Russia.
The Triple Alliance was formed in 1882. This was initiated by Germany. They had recently defeated France in
the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1). They feared the French would seek revenge & so organised a series of
treaties that would isolate France. All 3 powers promised to fight if they were attacked by any other 2 powers.
After their defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, French hatred of Germany & desire for revenge dominated their
foreign policy in the yr leading up to World War 1. France signed an agreement with Russia in 1893. This was
again a defensive alliance which stated that if either power was attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary,
both countries would fight. This was a great success for France as Germany would have to divide its forces if
war broke out.
Britain at this time was happy to have little involvement in Europe, as long as no single power became too
strong. This policy was known as ‘splendid isolation’ and depended on the strength of the Royal Navy. Britain’s
most likely ally at this point was, surprisingly, Germany. It had no colonies & was therefore not a threat to the
British Empire. Furthermore, their royal families were related. However, 2 events made Britain begin to
question its policy of ‘splendid isolation’.
- In 1898 Germany began to develop her navy. This surprised the British as Germany had no empire & had
the strongest army in Europe. Many thought that the Germans were planning to challenge British naval
power.
- In 1899 the Boers in South Africa rebelled against Britain. This war lasted until 1902 & most of Europe,
including the German Kaiser, sympathised with the Boers.
In 1903-4 Britain & France signed the Entente Cordiale (‘friendly agreement’). This contained agreements over
British reforms in Egypt & French action in Morocco. The Entente Cordiale was not an alliance. Britain still did
not require France as an ally at this point as problems in Egypt had been solved, her ally Japan was defeating
Russia in the Far East and its navy had reached the 3 power standard (as powerful as the next 3 largest fleets
combined). However, Germany did not see it this way. She became intent on challenging the Entente Cordiale.
The Entente Cordiale was strengthened by the 1st Moroccan Crisis. After this crisis, the Anglo-Russian
Agreement was signed in 1907. This again dealt with problems in the colonies e.g. Persia. These British
agreements with France and Russia are often referred to as the Triple Entente. However, these were not
military alliances. Nevertheless, Germany feared that they were being encircled as part of British policy. These
fears emerged as the terms of the agreements were secret.
b) German foreign policy
Kaiser Wilhelm II was determined to improve the international standing of Germany. He pursued the policy of
‘Weltpolitik’ or ‘world policy’. This meant that he wanted Germany to be of major importance in world affairs.
Wilhelm II was jealous of the British Empire. He was determined to provide Germany with ‘a place in the sun’.
The Kaiser could be overdramatic & unpredictable. Many historians claim that this led to an increase in
tension before 1914.
Kaiser Wilhelm II: speech to the North German Regatta Association, 1901
‘In spite of the fact that we have no such fleet as we should have, we have conquered for ourselves a place in
the sun. It will now be my task to see to it that this place in the sun remains our undisputed possession, in
order that the sun’s rays may fall fruitfully upon our activity & trade in foreign parts that our industry &
agriculture may develop within the state & our sailing sports upon the water, for our future lies upon the
water. The more Germans go out upon the waters… whether it be in races across the ocean, or in service of
the battle flag, so much the better it will be for us’.
c) The Moroccan crisis, 1905-6
As part of the Entente Cordiale, Britain had agreed to not oppose French attempts to control Morocco.
Germany had the strongest army in the world and claimed the need for Weltpolitik, but had few colonies.
Germany decided to oppose the French attempt to gain control of Morocco. In 1905 Wilhelm II went to
Tangier. He rode through the streets on a white horse accompanied by a military band and Moroccan troops.
He declared that he would support Morocco as an independent country and called for an international
conference to resolve the issue. This was typical of the Kaiser and Germany’s policy at the beginning of the
twentieth century.
This strategy backfired. The conference was held at Algeçiras in southern Spain in Jan 1906. At the conference
only Austria-Hungary and Morocco supported Germany. France had to recognise the independence of
Morocco, but was given control of the Moroccan bank, the customs and excise system, the supply of arms and
the maintenance of a police force.
This affected the alliances as the Entente Cordiale was strengthened. Britain began secret military talks with
France. This was not with the intention of creating a formal alliance, but the French became increasingly
confident of British support. Britain also seemed to be taking more of an interest in European affairs,
indicating a further move away from ‘splendid isolation’. It was also only a yr later that the Anglo-Russian
Agreement was signed.
d) The BosniancCrisis, 1908-9
The next crisis which affected relations between the great powers was sparked by the gradual collapse of the
old Turkish (Ottoman) Empire. Small countries in south eastern Europe (the Balkans) were in the process of
becoming independent from Turkish rule. Most people in this area were Slavs. Serbia was the leading Slav
state in the Balkans and aimed to unite all the other states under Serbian leadership. Austria-Hungary was also
concerned about the Balkans. Austria-Hungary was a large multi-ethnic empire. Austria-Hungary was worried
that the Slavs in their empire would want to unite with the other Slavic peoples in the Balkans, under Serbia. If
this happened, many of the other races in Austria-Hungary would also want independence. This could lead to
the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
In 1908 Austria took advantage of a revolution in Turkey to annex Bosnia (absorb it into its empire). This action
greatly annoyed Serbia, as Bosnia contained a majority of Slavs. Serbia was too weak to oppose AustriaHungary alone, so appealed to the Russians (fellow Slavs) for help. Russia backed Serbia’s demands for a
conference. Austria-Hungary asked Germany for support. Although the Kaiser was annoyed because the
Austro-Hungarians had acted over Bosnia without consulting him, he still supported them. He remembered
that the Austrians had been his only supporters in the Moroccan Crisis of 1905-6, and he had been angered by
the Anglo-Russian Agreement. Russia was too weak to fight and was forced to back down.
The Bosnia Crisis had a very significant effect on the armed camps in Europe. Austria-Hungary was now very
confident of German support, which affected its actions in 1914. Italy did not approve of the Austrian move
into the Balkans, and so became less keen on the Triple Alliance. Russia felt humiliated, this led to military
improvements within the country. Britain, France and Russia were drawn closer by a mutual dislike of
Germany. Serbia reluctantly accepted the annexation of Bosnia, but became even more determined to oppose
Austria, with the support of Russia.
As well as leading to further developments in these ‘armed camps’, conditions in the Balkans also provided the
‘spark’ which was to ignite World War I.
e) The 2nd Moroccan crisis, 1911
In 1911 there were a no. of risings against the inefficient Sultan of Morocco. The Sultan appealed to the
French for help and a French army was sent to Fez, the capital, to restore order. The Kaiser, fearing that
France might annex Morocco, sent a gunboat (The Panther) to Agadir, a key Moroccan port. It is important to
note that the Germans did not expect to take the country for themselves, or even prevent French control.
Instead, they hoped that by getting involved, the French would have to negotiate with them and that Germany
would gain some territory in any talks that took place. They hoped to acquire the French Congo.
However, the presence of the German gunboat in Agadir angered the British. It was interpreted as a warlike
action, and a potential challenge to the British naval base at Gibraltar. Lloyd George (the Chancellor of the
Exchequer) in his famous Mansion House speech, warned Germany that Britain would not sit by where her
naval and trading interests were threatened. The Germans demanded an apology for this speech, but did not
get 1.
Preparations for war were made in Germany, Britain and France. However, a conference in Paris resolved the
issue. Germany accepted 2 marshy strips of land in the French Congo, in return for accepting French control of
Morocco.
This crisis had a significant effect on relations between the powers. Germany felt humiliated and would be
unlikely to back down over her interests again. German public opinion became intensely anti-British. Britain
became even more convinced that Germany intended to dominate Europe. Britain reached a secret naval
agreement with France: they agreed to defend the north coast of France and France agreed to defend the
Mediterranean. Italy opposed Germany over Agadir. This weakened the Triple Alliance and made Germany
more reliant on Austria-Hungary.
f) The Naval & Arms Race
In 1906 Britain launched the 1st of a new type of battleship, the Dreadnought. This new battleship was so
powerful, with its heavy guns and thick armour plating, and so quick, that it made all other battleships out of
date. The older ships were now referred to as fünf minuten ships by the Germans, as it was estimated that
they would only last this long, if faced by a Dreadnought. However, Britain’s naval supremacy was based on
the old type of battleships. The strength of navies now depended on how many Dreadnoughts they contained.
The naval race between Germany and Britain to build Dreadnoughts now began.
Public opinion in Britain was alarmed by German production of the new battleships. Britain planned to build 4
Dreadnoughts in 1909, but there were demands for this to be doubled, by groups who used the slogan ‘we
want 8, and we won’t wait’. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased British fears as war became a real possibility.
After 1911 the naval race continued but was less intense, as Britain had gone further ahead. By 1914, Britain
had 29 Dreadnoughts and Germany had 17. Germany did not seem to realise the threat that its navy was to
Britain. The naval rivalry did not directly cause the war, but it made it likely that Britain would fight against
Germany in any future conflict.
The arms race developed as a response to the armed camps which existed in Europe from 1907. Though these
agreements were defensive, the terms were secret. Therefore, all countries feared that the agreements were
directed against them. Countries therefore began to build up their armies. In Britain, the size of the army was
not increased, but it was made more efficient by Haldane’s military reforms. The British Expeditionary Force
(B.E.F.) was capable of being mobilized quickly and sent over the Channel at short notice. France increased her
period of compulsory military service from 2 to 3 yr, and Russia added 500,000 men to her peacetime
strength. Germany added 200,000 men to her army between 1900 and 1910.
Remember! The key issue for this part of our studies is:
Why were there 2 armed camps in Europe in 1914?
Are you able to explain how the factors we have examined led to the development of these groups?
Remember you also need to know details for ‘describe’ & source questions.
Key issue: Why did war break out in 1914?
a) Tension in the Balkans
Tension in the Balkans had not eased after the Bosnian Crisis of 1908. Serbia and Russia had become stronger
after backing down over Bosnia. Russia had built up its armed forces and Serbia was enlarged after victory in
the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars. Serbia still wished for the creation of a Greater Serbia, with Bosnia seen as the
next objective by many after recovery from the Balkan Wars. Many Serbs living in Bosnia were unhappy with
Austro-Hungarian rule.
Austria-Hungary was increasingly concerned by Serbian success. It looked for a chance to defeat Serbia, in
order to protect its large, multi-ethnic empire.
In 1911 10 men formed the Black Hand movement in Serbia. Their stated aim was: ‘To realise the national
ideal, the unification of all Serbs’. By 1914 the movement had around 2,500 members, including officials in the
Serbian army. They planned to assassinate the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, when he visited Sarajevo in Bosnia in 1914.
b) The assassination at Sarajevo
Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited Sarajevo (in Bosnia) on 28th June 1914 to observe a display of army
manoeuvres. This was a national festival day for the Serbs, so feeling against the visit was high. The Serbian
Prime Minister, Pasic, was aware of the danger and advised the Austrian government to abandon the trip.
Franz Ferdinand insisted however that it was his duty to attend.
Security was poor, with only 120 police to cover a journey of 6km. 1 of the assassins, Cabrinovic, threw a hand
grenade at the Archduke’s car. However, it deflected off Franz Ferdinand’s arm, into the road. The grenade
injured around 20 people.
By the time Franz Ferdinand reached the Town Hall he had decided to abandon the tour, after visiting the
wounded in hospital. Arrangements were made for this detour, but the Archduke’s driver was not informed.
When he turned in the wrong direction he was ordered to stop. The car came to a halt near Gavrilo Princip,
another Black Hand movement member, who was just leaving a sandwich shop. Princip took out his gun and
fired 2 shots. Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia, were both killed.
The assassins were put on trial and 2 were executed. Princip was only 19 and too young for the death penalty,
so he was imprisoned for 20 yr. He died in prison in 1918.
Most European countries believed that the assassination would be resolved by negotiation between AustriaHungary and Serbia. However, key figures in Austria-Hungary, such as Conrad von Hötzendorf (leader of the
army and a close friend of the assassinated Archduke) saw this as an opportunity for war against Serbia.
Indeed, von Hötzendorf had already proposed a war against Serbia 25x between the start of 1913 and June
1914.
As a response to the assassination, Austria-Hungary sent a 10 point ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia accepted all
but 1 of the 10 points. Point 6 would have involved Austrian involvement in the Serbian justice system. This
was seen as a threat to Serbian independence and was therefore refused. Serbia believed this would satisfy
Austria-Hungary, or at least lead to further negotiations. However, Austria, having been assured of full
German support on 6th July, declared war on Serbia on 28th July.
c) The role of the alliances
This declaration of war triggered some alliance agreements. Russia began to mobilise against Austria-Hungary
and Germany on 30th July. Germany declared war on Russia on 1st Aug, after they failed to respond to a
German ultimatum to stop mobilising. However, at this point, war was contained to Eastern Europe.
d) The Schlieffen plan
The German Schlieffen Plan ensured the spread of war to the west. Since the signing of the Franco-Russian
alliance in 1893, Germany had given consideration to the problem of a war on 2 fronts. In 1905 the head of
the German Army, von Schlieffen, had proposed a solution to a combined attack by France and Russia. It was
based on the fact that Russia was a large and less advanced country. The Schlieffen Plan proposed that,
because the Russians would take a long time to mobilise in the event of a war breaking out, there would be
time to attack the French and defeat them (6 weeks) and then use the same armies in the east to defeat
Russia. Germany would also use the element of surprise against France as, instead of attacking through their
shared border in Alsace-Lorraine, they would advance troops through neutral Belgium (von Schlieffen
originally suggested using Holland as well, but this element of the plan was dropped). The whole plan relied on
the speed of the German army.
The Kaiser was so confident in the success of the Schlieffen Plan that he was quoted as saying: ‘Lunch in Paris,
dinner in St Petersburg.’
The Schlieffen Plan caused the spread of war to the west as the mobilisation of Russia meant that the plan
would be ruined unless Germany acted quickly. Germany sent an ultimatum to France, demanding neutrality.
When this was ignored, war was declared on France on 3rd Aug.
The position of Britain in 1914 is interesting. The British government had no intention of joining Russia in the
war against Austria-Hungary. They may not even have entered the war if Germany had attacked France
through their shared border in Alsace-Lorraine. However, the British government was very concerned with the
security of the coast of Western Europe. It was felt that a strong power, if it gained control of this area, would
be able to launch an attack on Britain from here. This was why it had promised to defend the north coast of
France in 1912. Britain entered the war after Germany invaded Belgium on 3 rd Aug. They demanded the
withdrawal of German troops and declared war on 4th Aug, when this was ignored. Britain had been 1 of the
countries to sign the Treaty of London in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality. The British government
claimed it was going to war to defend the sanctity of treaties. The Kaiser was surprised that the British would
go to war over ‘a scrap of paper’.
e) Responsibility for the outbreak of war
The responsibility of the various countries must be considered. It could be argued that:
 Britain was the most responsible for the outbreak of war because it tried to encircle Germany, was
involved in several incidents before 1914 which contributed to European tension and did not make it clear
to Germany that they would go to war over Belgian neutrality.
 France was the most responsible because of its involvement in incidents before 1914 and its desire for
revenge against Germany after the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871.
 Germany was most responsible because of its aggressive policies, the unconditional support it offered to
Austria-Hungary and the Schlieffen Plan.
 Austria-Hungary was most responsible because of its refusal to negotiate with Serbia.
 Russia was the most responsible because it mobilised in defence of Serbia.
 Serbia was the most responsible because of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist
group.
Timeline of Events
th
28 June 1914
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
6th July
Germany promises support to Austria Hungary
rd
23 July
Austro Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia
th
24 July
Russia offers support to Serbia
28th July
Austria Hungary declares war on Serbia
th
30 July
Russia begins to mobilise its forces
st
1 Aug
Germany declares war on Russia
3rd Aug
Germany declares war on France; German troops enter Belgium
th
4 Aug
Germany declares war on Belgium; Britain declares war on Germany
th
5 Aug
France declares war on Germany
6th Aug
Austria Hungary declares war on Russia
Remember! The key issue for this part of our studies is:
Why did war break out in 1914?
Are you able to explain how the factors we have examined led to outbreak & spread of war? You could be
asked about the responsibility of specific countries. Remember you also need to know details for ‘describe’ &
source questions.