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Learning and Memory
• Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour
that is caused by experience. It’s an ongoing process.
» Vicarious learning-social learning & consequences
» Incidental learning
• Behaviour learning theories assume that learning takes
place as a result of responses to external events.
– Classical conditioning
– Instrumental conditioning
• fig.3.1.
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Classical Conditioning
• It occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired
with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response
on its own.
• Over time this second stimulus causes a similar response
because it is associated with the first stimulus
• . Ivan Pavlov’s “dog experiments”.-Drooling
» A bell (neutral stimulus) conditioned response=CS
» dried meat powder - Unconditioned stimulus= UCS
• Nervous and automatic system & repetition.
• Stimulus generalization: sound similar to a bell/package
• Stimulus discrimination: don’t buy imitations
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Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
• It occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviours that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes.
• Responses are made deliberately to obtain a goal.
• Desired behaviour may be rewarded in a process called Shaping
• Frequency marketing. E.g.: B.P cards.
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Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning occurs in one of three ways:
– positive reinforcement (reward) E.g.: Women wearing a perfume
receives a complement
– Extinction( the learned stimulus-response connection
will not be maintained).
– negative reinforcement E.g.: women alone on a Saturday night
because she did not use the perfume
– punishment (not to repeat ) E.g.: Being ridiculed by friends for
wearing a not good perfume.
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Cognitive Learning Theory
» Importance of internal mental processes
(different from behavioural).
» People are problem-solvers who actively use
information from the world around them to
master their environment.
» Is learning conscious or not?
» School 1) Conditioning occurs because subjects develop
conscious hypotheses and then act on them.
» School 2) We move toward familiar patterns. Automatic
responses.
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Observational Learning
• Occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviours-learning occurs as a
result of vicarious rather than direct experience.
• Memories are stored for later use.
• Imitating the behaviour of others is called modelling.
– Consumers attention must be directed to the appropriate model, who for reasons
of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity is desirable to emulate.
– Consumer must remember what is said or done by the model
– Consumer must convert this information into actions
– Consumers must be motivated to perform these actions.
Fig 3.3
E.g.: M.Jackson; H.Ford; Cindy C.; Claudia S.
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The Memory process-fig3.4
External
Inputs
Encoding: information
is placed in memory.
-programming
Storage: information is
retained in memory
Retrieval: Information
stored in memory is
found as needed.
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Relationship among memory systems-fig 3.5
Sensory memory
Temporary storage
of sensory information.
Capacity: High
Duration: Less than
1 second or a few
seconds (hearing)
Short-term memory
Brief storage of informa
tion currently being used
Capacity: Limited
Duration: Less than 20
seconds
Attention
Information that passes through an
attention gate is transferred to shortterm memory
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent
storage of information
Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Long or
permanent
Elaborative rehearsal
Information subjected to
elaborative rehearsal or deep
processing (e.g. its meaning is
considered) is transferred to
long-term memory.
• The forgetting process
– Decay: the structural changes in the brain produced by
learning simply go away.
– Forgetting also occurs due to Interference; as
additional information is learned, it displaces the earlier
information. E.g.: Ads in the same product category.
• Products as Memory Markers
– Nostalgia. E.g.: Beetle. J.R.Ewing / Lukoil ads
• Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
– The impression made is called Impact.
– Recognition tends to stay longer than Recall.
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