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Mesleki İngilizce - Technical English 1 Prof. Dr. Nizamettin AYDIN • Notes: – In the slides, • texts enclosed by curly parenthesis, {…}, are examples. • texts enclosed by square parenthesis, […], are explanations related to examples. [email protected] http://www.yildiz.edu.tr/~naydin 1 2 ANALYSIS AND FUNCTION OF THE ELEMENTS CONTAINED IN SENTENCES AND CLAUSES • Words are classified according to the jobs they perform in sentences • Parts of speech – noun, – pronoun, – adjective, – verb, – adverb, – preposition, – conjunction, – interjection – identify people and objects – express action – connect other words – • There are eight main ways in which words are used in sentences; – the eight kinds of words that perform these jobs are called parts of speech. 3 Noun 4 TYPES OF NOUNS • The word used to name • Abstract nouns – a person, – place, – thing, – idea – name a quality or an idea • for example, energy • Count nouns – nouns that can be counted • for example number of computers in a lab • divided into two classes: • Mass nouns – proper nouns – nouns cannot be counted • name a particular person, place, or thing • for example water in a glass – common nouns • name a class of things 5 • Mass nouns do not accept the article a before them 6 1 NOUN USAGE NOUN USAGE • Nouns function as subjects of verbs, objects of verbs and prepositions, complements, or appositives. • SUBJECTS • OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION – {The metal bent as pressure was applied to it.} • OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT – {The event occurred within the year.} • SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT – {a dynamo is a generator.} • DIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB – {We elected the academic head chairperson.} – {The bricklayer cemented the blocks efficiently.} • APPOSITIVE • INDIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB – {Ali Mutlu, the treasurer, gave his report last.} – {The center awarded our department a plaque for safety.} 7 8 NOUN USAGE Noun Strings • Words normally used as nouns can also be used as adjectives and adverbs. • ADJECTIVE • a sequence of nouns that serves to modify another noun – for example, multichannel microwave radiometer • nouns multichannel and microwave serve to modify radiometer – {It is company policy.} • ADVERB • the string may also include an adjective, as in – {He went home.} – {special multichannel microwave radiometer} • grammatically OK! • problem occurs when writers either 9 – string many nouns together in one sequence or – use many noun strings in a passage Noun Strings 10 Noun Strings • Very difficult for the reader to sort out the relationships among the words. We must understand who the initiators of wateroriented greenway efforts are before we can understand the basis for community environment decision-making processes. State government planning agencies and commissions and designated water quality planning and management agencies have initiated such efforts. They have implemented water resource planning and management studies and have aided volunteer group greenway initiators by providing technical and coordinative assistance. – In volunteer group greenway initiators does volunteer modify group or initiators? – There is no way the reader can tell. • Solution: – to include the relationships clues such as • prepositions, relative pronouns, commas, apostrophes, and hyphens. – For instance, placing a hyphen in volunteer-group would clarify that volunteer modified group. 11 12 2 Noun Strings Noun Strings • The use of noun strings in technical English is very common • It will be used by technical community • It is advisable that use strings with We must understand who the initiators of efforts to promote water-oriented greenways are before we can understand the process by which a community makes decisions about environmental issues. Planning agencies and commissions of the state government and agencies which have been designated to plan and manage water quality have initiated such efforts. They have implemented sudies on planning and managing water resources and have aided volunteer groups that initiate efforts to promote greenways by providing them with technical advice and assistance in coordinating their activities. – no more than three words – no more than one in paragraph. 13 THE PRONOUN 14 THE PRONOUN • a word that is used as a substitute of a noun or of more than one noun. • The word to which a pronoun refers is called the antecedent of the pronoun. – {Ali finished the experiment. He had worked three days to prepare it.} – In the preceding example, Ali is the antecedent of he, and experiment is the antecedent of it • [The pronoun he takes the place of the noun Ali. The pronoun it takes the place of the noun experiment.] • Not all pronouns have antecedents. – in the sentence “ Nobody was in the room, “ the pronoun nobody does not stand for a specific noun – {Ali and Veli are excellent engineers, and they plan to open a firm.} • There are several kinds of pronouns: • [The pronoun they takes the place of the nouns Ali and Veli.] – personal, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite 15 Personal Pronouns Personal Pronouns • refer to • In modern English, personal pronouns have the most varied and complex forms. – the person or people speaking – Pronouns have number. • I, me, my, mine • we, us, our, ours • take different forms for singular and plural numbers (he, they). – the person or people spoken to – Pronouns have person. • you, your, yours • change forms in three different persons: first, second, and third (I, you, he). – the person, people, or thing(s) spoken of • • • • 16 he, him, his she, her, hers it, its they, them, their, theirs – Pronouns have gender. • In the third person, singular, personal pronouns have three genders: masculine (he), feminine (she), and neuter (it). 17 18 3 Case Forms of Personal Pronouns Case Forms of Personal Pronouns • Two other pronouns (who and whoever) have different forms in the nominative and objective cases. • who and whoever are not personal pronouns. • They may be used either as interrogative pronouns, to ask a question, or as relative pronouns, to introduce a subordinate clause. • Pronouns have forms to show the subjective, objective, and possessive cases, as the following chart shows. Singular FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON Plural FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON NOMINATIVE CASE I you he (masculine) she (feminine) it (neuter) OBJECTIVE CASE me you him her it POSSESIVE CASE my, mine your, yours his her, hers its we you they us you them our, ours your, yours their, theirs NOMINATIVE CASE OBJECTIVE CASE who, whoever whom, whomever 19 Case Forms of Personal Pronouns • Possesive Forms my, mine his you, yours her, hers 20 Case Forms of Personal Pronouns • Reflexive and Intensive Forms myself himself, herself yourself itself its their, theirs our, ours ourselves themselves yourselves • Relative Pronouns • used to introduce subordinate clauses • Personal pronouns combined with –self, -selves may be used in two ways. who whom whose which that – {The article that you read is about geothermal plants.} – {The man whose name is on the article works at the university.} – may be used reflexively. • {Ali hurt himself at the laboratory.} – may be used intensively for emphasis. • {Ali himself gave the information to the doctor.} 21 Case Forms of Personal Pronouns 22 Case Forms of Personal Pronouns • Interrogative Pronouns • used in questions. who whom which what whose – {What is the answer to the problem?} – {Whose name was submitted?} • Demonstrative Pronouns • point out a particular person or thing. this these that those – {This is the best answer.} – {Those are the notes I wrote.} • When they are used before nouns, they are considered adjectives • Commonly Used Indefinite Pronouns • Indefinite pronouns refer generally, not specifically, to persons, places, or things. all either most one another everybody much several any everyone neither some anybody everything nobody somebody anyone few none someone both many no one such each more – {Everything was very clear.} – {Anybody could have taken the camera.} – {these books, that project, those reports} 23 24 4 THE ADJECTIVE Limiting Adjectives • An adjective makes the meaning of a noun or a pronoun more specific • include these categories: – Articles – by highlighting one of its qualities • a, an, the • descriptive adjective – Demonstrative adjectives or • this, that, these, those – by imposing boundaries on it – Possessive adjectives • limiting adjective • my, your, his, her, its, our, their – Numerical adjectives – {a hot iron.} [descriptive] – {ten computers.} [limiting] • two, first – Indefinite articles – {his desk.} [limiting] • all, none, some, any 25 26 Limiting Adjectives Limiting Adjectives • An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. • Adjectives may modify nouns or pronouns in one of three different ways. • Usually an adjective precedes the noun it modifies. • Sometimes, for emphasis, a writer may place it after the noun. – {The project, expensive and time consuming, was discarded.} – By telling what kind: • {personal computer, operating systems, power electronics} – By pointing out which one: • {those pumps, this project} – By telling how many • One of the most common problems a writer has to face when he is not an English native writer is the construction of a sentence, which has two or more adjectives. • As it happens with modifiers in general, they should be placed as close as possible to the element modified. • {ten boxes, several boks} 27 The Same Word used as Adjective and as a Pronoun 28 The Same Word used as Adjective and as a Pronoun • A word may be used as one part of speech in one context and as a different part of speech in a context. • This is especially true of the following words, which may be used as either pronouns or adjectives: • ADJECTIVE – {Which article did you write?} • [Which modifies the noun article.] • PRONOUN – {Which did you write?} all another any both each either few many more most much neither one other several some that these this those • [Which takes the place of the noun article.] what which • ADJECTIVE – {I wrote this article.} • [This modifies article.] • PRONOUN – {I wrote this.} • [This takes the place of the noun article.] 29 30 5 TIPS FOR USING ADJECTIVES TIPS FOR USING ADJECTIVES • Unlike many other languages, adjectives in English have only one form. • In English, verbs of feeling (for example, bore, interest, surprise) have two adjectival forms: – Do not add –s or –es to an adjective to make it plural. – the present participle (-ing) • {The long trip.} • {The long letters.} • used to describe what causes the feeling. – the past participle (-ed). – Capitalize adjectives of origin (city, state, nation, continent). • • • • • used to describe the person who experiences the feeling. – {We heard the surprising election results.} {The Venetian canals.} {The Mexican hat.} {The Turkish government.} {The African desert.} • [The election results cause the feeling.] – {Only the candidate was surprised by the election results.} • [The candidate experienced the feeling of surprise.] 31 TIPS FOR USING ADJECTIVES 32 TIPS FOR USING ADJECTIVES • In all other cases, adjectives are placed before the noun. • When there are multiple adjectives, it is often difficult to know the right order. • The guidelines illustrated in the following example would apply in most circumstances, but there are exceptions. • Adjectives follow the noun in English in only two cases: – when the adjective functions as a subjective complement, as in • {That project is not finished} – when an adjective phrase or clause modifies the noun, as in – Normally do not use a phrase with so many stacked modifiers. The six extra large rectangular Brown Determiner Number comment size shape colour Chinese Cardboard take-out containers origin material noun qualifier • {The project that was suspended temporarily…….} 33 THE VERB 34 Types of Verbs • a word or group of words that describe an action or otherwise helps to make a statement. • Some verbs make a statement by expressing action. • The action may be • Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. • A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning. – {They laid foundation on October 24.} – physical, • [The word foundation is the direct object of the transitive verb laid.] • as in push, throw, extract, and write, – {Ali Mutlu wrote the dean a letter.} – mental, • [The word letter is the direct object of the transitive verb wrote.] • as in calculate and believe. 35 36 6 Types of Verbs Types of Verbs • An intransitive verb does not require an object to complete its meaning. • makes a full assertion about the subject without assistance (although it may have modifiers) • When the complement is a noun or a pronoun, it refers to the same person or thing as the noun or the pronoun that is the subject. – {The winch is rusted.} • [Rusted is an adjective modifying winch.] – {The engine ran.} – {The engine ran smoothly and quietly.} – {A calculator remains a useful tool.} • [A useful tool is a subjective complement-renaming calculator.] • A linking verb is an intransitive verb that links a complement to the subject. 37 38 Properties of Verbs Properties of Verbs • Verbs must • Verbs change their forms to agree in person with their subjects. – always agree in person with personal pronouns functioning as subjects – agree in tense and number with their subjects. – also be in the appropriate voice. – {I see [first person] yellow tint, but she sees [third person] a yellow greenhue.} – {I am [first person] convinced, but you are [second person] not convinced.} • Person is the grammatical term for the form of a personal pronoun that indicates whether the pronoun refers to • Tense refers to verb forms that indicate time distinctions. – the speaker, – the person spoken to, – the person/thing spoken about. – There are six tenses • present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect. 39 40 Properties of Verbs THE ADVERB • a word used to modify • Tense is the grammatical term for verb forms each tense having a corresponding progressive form. TENSE BASIC FORM PROGRESSIVE FORM Present Past Future Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect I begin I began I will begin I have begun I had begun I will have begun I am beginning I was beginning I will be beginning I have been beginning I had been beginning I will have been beginning – a verb, – an adjective, – another adverb • most commonly used to modify the verb. • It may tell • • • • how, when, where, to what extent (how often or how much) the action of the verb is done. 41 42 7 THE ADVERB THE ADVERB • We can say that an adverb modifies the action or condition expressed by a verb. • An adverb may modify an adjective. – {The operators are exceptionally compe}ent.} – {The machine performed poorly.} • [Exceptionally modifies the adjective competent, telling how competent they are.] • [Poorly tells how the machine performed.] • An adverb may modify another adverb. – {Ali revised the paper earlier.} – {Ali writes very well. • [Earlier tells when Ali revised the paper.] – {Ali revised the paper there.} • [Very modifies the adverb well, telling to what extent Ali writes well, or how well he writes.] • [There tells where Ali revised the paper.] – {Ali revises papers frequently.} • [Frequently tells how often Ali revises papers.] 43 44 THE ADVERB Placement of adverbs • An adverb answers one of the following questions: • An adverb usually should be placed in front of the verb it modifies. – Where? (adverb of place) – {Ali meticulously performed the devices check.} • {Move the throttle forward slightly.} • An adverb may, however, follow the verb (or the verb and its object) that it modifies. – When? (adverb of time) • {Replace the thermostat immediately.} – {The gauge dipped suddenly.} – {They repaired the computer quickly.} – How? (adverb of manner) • {Add the chemical cautiously.} – How much? (adverb of degree) • {The nearly completed report was deleted from his disk.} 45 46 Placement of adverbs THE PREPOSITION • a word used to link a noun or pronoun (its object) to another sentence element by expressing such relationships as • An adverb may be placed between a helping verb and a main verb. – {In this temperature range, the pressure will quickly drop.} – direction • to, into, across, toward • Adverbs such as nearly, only, almost, just, and hardly should be placed immediately before the words they limit. – location • at, in, on, under, over, beside, among, by, between, through – time – {The color copier with the high-speed document feeder/collator only costs $47,000.} • before, after, during, until, since • shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. 47 48 8 THE PREPOSITION THE PREPOSITION • A preposition always introduces a phrase. • Many words that function as prepositions also function as adverbs. – A phrase is a group of related words used as a single part of speech and not containing a verb and its subject. – A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and usually ending with a noun or a pronoun. • {in the laboratory} • {under the table} – if the word takes an object and functions as a connective, it is a preposition – if it has no object and functions as a modifier, it is an adverb. • PREPOSITIONS: {before the class} {along the street} – {The manager sat behind the desk in her office.} • ADVERBS: • The object of a preposition (the word or phrase following it) is always in the objective case. 49 – {The customer lagged behind; then he came in and sat down.} Commonly Used Prepositions about above across after against along amid among around at before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by concerning down during except for from in into like of off on over past since through 50 THE CONJUNCTION throughout to toward under underneath until unto up upon with within without • a word that connects words or groups of words, phrases, or clauses • can also indicate the relationship between the elements it connects. – – – – {Ali left the computer when the clock struck midnight.} {Ali and Veli won the Science Award.} {Their project succeeded because they had worked hard.} {They neither had a holiday nor took any days off.} • There are three kinds of conjunctions: – coordinating, – correlative, – subordinating. • Sometimes a group of words may act as a preposition: – on account of, in spite of, along with, together with. 51 Coordinating Conjunctions 52 Correlative Conjunctions • join two sentence elements that have identical functions. • The following are the coordinating conjunctions: either.... or both.... and whether.... or neither.... nor not only.... but (also) • Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. and but or not for yet so – {Nature and technology are two conditions that affect petroleum operations around the world.} – {Both students and lecturers must work for long hours.} – {Either the fuel line is clogged or the carburetor needs adjusting.} • [joins two nouns] – {To hear and to listen are two different things.} • [joins two phrases] – {I would like to include the test results, but that would make the report too long. • [joins two clauses] 53 54 9 Subordinating Conjunctions Commonly Used Subordinating Conjunctions • used to connect sentence elements of different weights, normally independent and dependent clauses. • begin subordinate clauses, usually adverb clauses. after although as as much as because – {Oya didn’t understand the process until she took a course.} – {Ali and Veli arrived late because their plane was delayed.} – {A test is administered when the unit is finished.} before how if inasmuch as in order that provided since so that than that though till unless until when whenever where wherever while • need not come between the sentence parts it joins. • may come at the beginning of a sentence. – {While Dr. Mehmet explained his theory, Ali listened attentively. 55 56 SUMMARY OF PARTS OF SPEECH Part of Speech Use Examples noun names researcher, Ali, university pronoun takes the place of a noun I, her, theirs, who, it adjective modifies a noun or pronoun interesting, hard, significant verb shows action otherwise helps to make a statement write, might, see, is adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb easily, rather, often, rapidly preposition relates a noun or a pronoun to another word at, near, with conjunction joins words or groups of words and, either.... or, because 57 10